Item 1. Business
Item 1. Business.
Overview
We design, develop and market next-generation power semiconductors including gallium nitride (GaN) power integrated circuits (ICs), silicon carbide (SiC) power devices, associated high-speed silicon system controllers, and digital isolators used in power conversion and charging. Power supplies incorporating our products may be used in a wide variety of electronics products including fast chargers for mobile phones and laptops, consumer electronics, data centers, solar inverters and electric vehicles, among numerous other applications.
Our products provide superior efficiency, performance, size, cost and sustainability relative to existing silicon technology. Our solutions offer faster charging, higher power density and greater energy savings compared to silicon-based power systems with the same output power. By unlocking this speed and efficiency, we believe Navitas is leading a revolution in high-frequency, high-efficiency, high-density, and sustainable power electronics to “Electrify Our World”™ for a cleaner tomorrow.
Industry Overview
Most electronic devices that connect to a wall socket require a power supply to convert energy provided by utilities at 100-240V alternating current (AC) into lower-voltage direct current (DC) required by most electronic devices. Power supplies can be located inside the devices they are powering, as is the case with many consumer electronics and home appliances, or outside of the device, as is typically the case with devices like mobile phone chargers or laptop computers, typically referred to as wall chargers or power adapters.
In other applications such as electric vehicles, power may be converted from a high-voltage (e.g. 400 V) DC battery to a lower voltage (e.g. 12 V) or, in the case of solar inverters, from low-voltage DC to high-voltage AC.
In electronic devices today, most of these charging and power supply functions are carried out using silicon (Si) power MOSFETs (Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors) or IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors), along with related analog peripheral semiconductors. As the electronic content and functionality of systems have increased over time, existing silicon-based solutions have struggled to achieve high energy efficiency and fast charging, and they require large heat sinks or other thermal management methods, and large or complex form factors.
Two newer “wide band-gap” (WBG) materials have entered the power electronics market—gallium nitride (GaN) and silicon carbide (SiC). In general terms, devices rated around 700V address applications requiring output power of approximately 20 W to 20 kW, such as smartphone chargers or data center power supplies. Silicon Carbide (SiC) solutions are generally designed for higher power applications (up to 1 MW) and higher device voltages (up to 6,500 V).
At the highest level, GaN is a combination of gallium and nitrogen, which forms a powerful bond with materially stronger electric fields and greater electron mobility compared to silicon. With a GaN power IC, increased power system switching speeds and energy efficiency can be achieved, which translate into notable benefits for power electronics such as smaller size, lighter weight, higher density, faster charging, energy savings and ultimately a lower system cost. These are significant gains relative to existing Si-based power solutions. A transistor is at the heart of a power supply, and a discrete (that is, non-integrated) GaN transistor requires a specialized silicon driver and multiple other components to drive and protect that GaN transistor. This additional circuitry has limited the adoption of GaN over the last decade due to cost, complexity, size, and vulnerability to system transients. Navitas has solved this problem with the GaN power IC. The Company is the first to integrate all the drive and protection components along with the GaN transistor in a single GaN chip. This provides several form-factor improvements and energy savings compared to silicon solutions. The GaN IC solution also provides several benefits compared to GaN discrete solutions, including a smaller footprint, fewer components, energy savings, and lower cost.
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Based on third-party estimates, the GaN device market (all voltages) in 2023 was about $260 million with SiC around $2.8 billion. Based on Navitas’ estimates, Navitas is a market leader in high-voltage (600-700V) GaN, and has a growing share of the SiC market. The combined GaN and SiC market is estimated to grow around 29% in 2024, with the legacy silicon market growing only approximately 5%.
Combining GaN and SiC, the total potential market opportunity is estimated to be over $22 billion per year by 2026, split $7 billion for GaN, $9.3 billion for SiC, and with $6.1 billion overlapping GaN/SiC market. By the end of 2028, Yole, which is a consulting firm that specializes in the strategic analysis of markets, estimates that 30% of the legacy power silicon market will have been taken by GaN and SiC.
Company Overview
Converting power efficiently has emerged as a critical challenge as the electrification of our planet continues amid the pursuit of reduced carbon footprints. Electric vehicles, renewable energy, large-scale data processing and other applications all demand power and charging infrastructures with greater speed and efficiency than status-quo silicon technology. Navitas’ GaN and SiC products solve complex and demanding challenges that are inherent in power conversion by unlocking both speed and efficiency. Since our founding in 2014, we have successfully harnessed the fundamentally superior material properties of GaN to enable cost savings and enhanced power conversion through product integration, reducing the amount of space needed to support multiple requirements while dramatically increasing charging speeds. With ten-times stronger electrical fields and twice the electron mobility compared to silicon, GaN is ideally suited for disrupting power switching applications, but challenges around manufacturing quality and reliability make commercialization difficult. By developing a fully qualified manufacturing process with over one billion device hours tested, Navitas overcame these key hurdles to successfully and reliably integrate the critical drive, control and protection circuits into a single chip, enabling mainstream GaN adoption and unlocking the full potential of GaN in speed, efficiency, simplicity and cost. Navitas estimates show that GaN-based power systems can provide 20x faster switching, up to 3x higher power density, 3x faster charging, up to 40% energy savings and are 3x smaller and lighter compared to silicon-based power systems. Navitas’ ICs allow end customers to implement GaN technology with a simple, dependable solution to realize groundbreaking power density and efficiency. We are developing a differentiated GaN power IC platform utilizing decades of power semiconductor technical expertise, robust applications knowledge and strong end customer relationships. We believe our competitive strengths and robust IP portfolio of over 250 issued and pending patents have enabled us to establish a leading market position in GaN power semiconductors.
In August 2022, Navitas acquired GeneSiC Semiconductor, adding a broad range of SiC MOSFETs and diodes to the Navitas portfolio. GeneSiC proprietary trench-assisted planar-grade MOSFET technology combines the best of planar SiC (ease of manufacturing, robustness) with the best of trench SiC (low resistance, smaller die sizes). Navitas SiC MOSFETs have lower resistance than competitors at higher temperatures, and operate at cooler temperatures, for expected 3x longer device life expectancy.
Navitas is led by a team of power semiconductor industry experts with a combined 300+ years of experience in semiconductor materials, devices, applications, systems and marketing.
Navitas’ Market Opportunities
We believe GaN and SiC will continue to displace silicon-based power semiconductors in a broad range of markets ranging from mobile/consumer to home appliance/industrial, data center, solar/storage, and EV. These markets are driven by major, long-term secular trends including explosive growth in data traffic, increasing electricity cost, and the transition from fossil fuel-based to sustainable energy sources to help address climate change. Industry analyst Yole estimates that by the end of 2028, GaN and SiC will have replaced 30% of the legacy silicon market.
• Mobile/Consumer. With short design-in times, and a strong “portability” value proposition, our initial focus and technology beachhead for GaN was the mobile fast and ultra-fast charging market for smartphones, tablets and laptops. GaN Power ICs generally can provide up to 3x more power and up to 3x faster charging, with half the size and weight of silicon chargers with the same output power. With the introduction of USB Type-C universal connectors and charging protocols, and as smartphone screen size, batteries and functions have increased, demand
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for high-power “ultra-fast” chargers has been established. For example, GaN-based 240 W chargers supplied with today’s flagship smartphones can enable 0-100% charging in less than 10 minutes. As over 2.5 billion chargers are shipped every year, each estimated to include potentially approximately $1 of GaN content, the mobile charger market represents a multi-billion-dollar opportunity based on estimates from IDC PC tracker, USB-C research, Yole research and Navitas estimates. As of December 2023, all of the top-10 mobile OEMs are in production or development with Navitas. Non-mobile (non-battery) applications include ultra-thin TVs, high-powered gaming systems, desktop all-in-one PCs, and various smart home internet-connected devices.
• Data Center Within the enterprise end-market, we primarily focus on solving power problems of data centers. Nearly 50% of the total cost of ownership of a data center is related to power, which includes the cost of power supplies as well as the cost of electricity for data processing, cooling, lighting and other power needs. For the data processing component alone, by our estimates (2021), a silicon-based data center is about 75% efficient, implying 25% of the energy used by a data center is wasted as heat. A GaN-based data center can improve efficiency to about 84% total efficiency, representing benefits in reduced cost of electricity and the cost of cooling. Navitas’ data center power platform designs are half the size of legacy silicon solutions, meet or exceed European Union efficiency requirements and, based on customer feedback, have an overall bill-of-materials cost lower than legacy silicon. In aggregate, we estimate that data centers represent about a $1 billion opportunity for GaN ICs based on IDC Worldwide Quarterly Server Tracker and Navitas analysis.
• Solar/Storage . In residential solar, we believe GaN is well positioned to replace silicon in per-panel micro-inverters (350 – 500 W). Based on customer feedback, we estimate system cost reductions of approximately 25% compared to legacy silicon solutions, in addition to efficiency-driven energy savings over time. We estimate this translates into about a 10% improvement in the return on investment in solar systems. Overall, we estimate the GaN IC opportunity for solar applications to be over $1 billion per year based on Markets and Markets Micro-Inverter Market report and Navitas analysis. Meanwhile, higher-power, higher-voltage commercial “string” inverters have adopted SiC to replace legacy silicon IGBTs, with significant savings in weight and size. To help balance solar supply and electrical demand, and for users to become more grid-independent, the “attach rate” for battery-based energy-storage designs (or “bi-directional” EV) that require SiC, is expected to increase from less than 10% in 2022 to 30%-40% in 2025, according to a leading customer.
• Home Appliance / Industrial. This market is dominated by high-efficiency motor drive applications, including domestic appliances such as washing machines, vacuum cleaners, dishwasher pumps, refrigerator compressors and heat pumps, plus industrial uses such as water pumps, conveyor systems, robots, and warehouse materials handling systems. Based on Navitas estimates, high-speed GaN half-bridge power ICs deliver improved energy savings compared to legacy silicon and enable drive-motor integration due to their smaller size and lighter weight. We estimate the opportunity for GaN in 50-300 W motor drive applications to be around $1.5 billion per year. As motor drive power increases to over 1 hp (~750 W), the higher current-handling capabilities of SiC come into play.
• Electric Vehicles . EV demand is increasing. Boston Consulting Group’s 2018 forecast for world-wide EV adoption in 2030 was 21%. By 2022, that 2030 forecast had risen to 53%. EV adoption challenges include three main themes: the need for faster charging, demand for extended range, and lowering the cost compared to traditional, internal combustion powered cars. EVs can also act as supplementary energy back-up for your home to balance energy supply (from household AC, solar, generators) and demand (heating, cooling, cooking, device charging and other electronics), and be a critical part of an energy-independent micro-grid in the event of a grid
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power failure. This is known as “V2x” (vehicle to anything) charging. For 400 V-rated EV battery systems, ~700 V-rated GaN operates at high-speeds in on-board chargers (OBCs) and DC-DC converters. For example, Navitas’ “3-in-1” platform design includes a 6.6 kW bi-directional charge/discharge and consolidated DC-DC converter. For higher-power traction inverters, and systems with 800 V-rated batteries, 1,200 V SiC is an optimized solution. We estimate GaN and SiC content per passenger EV to be approximately $350 per vehicle. For trucks, buses and earth-moving equipment, OBCs may be up to 300 kW, and use higher-voltage distribution rails such as 1,000 V – which require 1,700 – 3,300 V SiC. Similar power and voltage requirements are found in roadside fast chargers.
Competitive Strengths
By December 2023, over 125 million Navitas GaN devices have been shipped, with failure rates of less than one part per million. Over 400 mobile charger models that include Navitas GaN devices have entered mass production. As of February 2024, based on publicly-available data, no other vendor has entered production with monolithically-integrated high-voltage GaN, other than simple diode-connected gate-protection transistors. We believe Navitas is the market and technology leader in GaN power ICs, with leading revenue, technology and intellectual property. To date, over 12 million GeneSiC products have shipped with excellent quality, and superior performance. We believe our key competitive advantages include:
• Industry-Leading IP Position and Proprietary Design Support. Navitas has a broad portfolio of over 250 patents issued or pending, encompassing key aspects of GaN power circuitry analog and digital integration and SiC device design. Our patents are generally applicable to use cases in all of our targeted market applications. A key element of our intellectual property is our GaN IC process design kit (PDK), which we use to facilitate and accelerate product implementation and end customer development. We believe our PDK includes the industry’s first and most mature and comprehensive device and circuit development libraries, characterization and verification tools, and robust simulation models.
• Differentiated GaN Power Solutions. Our integrated circuit approach to GaN power semiconductors eliminates complexity in driving, controlling and protecting GaN transistors while simultaneously fostering design simplicity. We have overcome key hurdles to commercialization with our proprietary GaN design and manufacturing test systems and are fully qualified with over one billion device hours tested to underscore reliability.
• Industry-leading, Proprietary SiC Power Solutions. GeneSiC proprietary trench-assisted planar-gate MOSFET technology combines the best of planar SiC (ease of manufacturing, robustness) with the best of trench SiC (low resistance, smaller die sizes). Navitas SiC MOSFETs have lower resistance than competitors at higher temperatures, and in head-to-head bench evaluations, run 25°C cooler, for 3x longer device life expectancy.
• Enabling, High-frequency Eco-system Control and Isolation Technology. For performance- and cost-optimized applications, high-speed GaN and SiC power components are accompanied by high-frequency system control ICs and digital isolators. Navitas is unique in having a comprehensive eco-system that enables the high levels of integration from 30 W smartphone chargers to 22 kW on-board, and mega-Watt roadside EV chargers.
• Established Relationships with Key Partners and End Customers. In support of our technology leadership, we have formed relationships with numerous Tier 1 manufacturers and suppliers, gaining significant traction in mobile and consumer charging applications.
• Dedicated Application-Specific Design Centers. We believe we are unique in adding application-specific design centers for mobile, data center and EV, which allow us to develop GaN- and SiC-based power systems working with key customers in each of these segments, driving additional value with these customers and fueling additional system-led integration back in to our products for future generations.
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• Proven Leadership Team of Tenured Industry Experts. Navitas’ management team has over 400 years of combined power semiconductor experience and a track record of shareholder value creation. Three of Navitas’ founders have worked closely together for over 25 years and are credited with power semiconductor industry achievements and successes that include over 200 issued patents and 200 industry papers and presentations.
Strategy
We are committed to offering unprecedented speed and efficiency to our end-customers through next-generation power semiconductor solutions, empowering efficient electrification while reducing the carbon footprint of our customers’ products. Navitas products address a variety of power applications from 20 W to 20 MW, across markets including mobile/consumer, data centers, home appliance/industrial, solar/storage and EV. With an established track record in mobile fast charging, over 125 million GaN units shipped, we believe Navitas is well positioned to expand GaN into higher power applications and accelerate adoption of our expansive GeneSiC SiC portfolio. Our key strategic initiatives include:
• Acceleration of Technology Development and Innovation. We are focused on bringing to market multiple generations of high-voltage GaN, SiC, and low-voltage Si controller technology that enhance our margin profile while providing further integration benefits and advanced packaging to serve higher power markets.
• Expansion into New End Markets and Geographies. Building on our initial success in mobile fast charging and consumer electronics, Navitas is poised for expansion into new market applications including data centers, solar and renewable energy as well as electric vehicles and mobility. Our fabless manufacturing model allows us to scale efficiently into new markets and applications while minimizing capital expenditures.
• Selective Acquisitions of Complementary Technologies. We plan to continually evaluate acquisition opportunities that are complementary to our existing portfolio and increase power semiconductor content in our targeted applications. In 2022, Navitas acquired VDDTECH srl, a developer of high-speed digital isolator technology, and GeneSiC Semiconductor Inc., a producer of SiC MOSFETs and diodes. In 2023, Navitas bought-out the remainder of a joint venture with Halo Microelectronics International Corporation for high-speed, low-voltage silicon system controllers.
• Leadership in Sustainability. Through Navitas analysis and third-party auditing, we estimate that each GaN power IC shipped saves a net 4 kg of CO 2 emissions, and each SiC MOSFET saves 25kg. To date, over 200,000 tons of CO 2 emissions have been saved as compared to legacy silicon solutions providing the same power output. Overall, by the target date of the Paris Accord, we estimate that GaN and SiC can reduce CO 2 emissions by over 6 Gtons per year. Navitas was the first semiconductor producer solely focused on GaN and SiC products to publish a quantitative, third-party-verified sustainability report, and the first semiconductor company worldwide to be certified CarbonNeutral ® by Climate Impact Partners. Each customer can adapt the CO 2 footprint-reduction value of GaN and SiC to achieve their own sustainability analysis and commitments.
Sales, Marketing and End Customer Support
For GaN, our go-to-market strategy combines robust GaN commercialization and design expertise with validated success in mobile and consumer charging applications to capture market share and expand into new vertical markets. We partner with numerous platforms and end customers globally and target innovative, Tier 1 suppliers to design differentiated power semiconductor solutions. To facilitate end customer success, we offer comprehensive design support and utilize a proprietary process design kit tailored to specific engineering needs. Navitas is unique in opening three, separate, system-dedicated application design centers to accelerate adoption of GaN and SiC into fast chargers, data centers and EV. Furthermore, our technologies are capable of being integrated into numerous product generations and design architectures, creating a scalable business opportunity. This technical business-to-business (B2B) approach is supplemented by commercial business-to-consumer (B2C) end-user awareness, and customer co-operative activities across in-person and virtual multi-media platforms.
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Key distribution partners provide additional field application engineering resources to assist in introducing our technology to a diversified end customer base and implementing our products in end customers’ products and systems. In addition, Navitas’ direct sales team works to facilitate development of new end customer partnerships with our distribution partners. With a focus on leading global clients, we believe Navitas is well positioned to expand both its existing end customer base and enter new markets in the near-term, while maintaining its current market leadership position in mobile fast charging.
Intellectual Property
The core strength of our business lies in our industry-leading IP position in GaN power ICs and SiC MOSFETs. We invented the first commercial GaN power ICs and along the way have patented many fundamental circuit elements which are needed in most power systems from 20 W to 20 kW. We have more than 250 issued or pending patents, which are expected to expire between the end of 2034 and early 2041.
A key element of our intellectual property is our GaN IC process design kit (PDK), which we use to facilitate and accelerate product implementation and end customer development. We believe our PDK includes the industry’s first and most mature and comprehensive device and circuit development libraries, characterization and verification tools, and robust simulation models.
Competition
Our competitors include suppliers of silicon-based as well as GaN-based and SiC-based power semiconductors. Most suppliers of GaN-based devices today offer discrete (i.e., non-integrated) GaN solutions, which require silicon-based and other components for drive, control and protection. These solutions, even though they offer some benefits compared to silicon, still do not capture all the advantages of a GaN integrated power IC that Navitas provides. Our primary GaN competitors include Infineon Technologies AG, Power Integrations, Inc., Texas Instruments Incorporated, Innoscience (Suzhou) Semiconductor Co., Ltd., Transphorm, Inc. and Efficient Power Conversion Corporation (EPC). Primary SiC competitors include Infineon, Wolfspeed, Inc., ON Semiconductor Corporation, ROHM Co., Ltd., Qorvo, Inc., and STMicroelectronics International N.V.
Our primary silicon-based power semiconductor competitors include Infineon, STMicroelectronics, ON Semiconductor and Power Integrations, among others. Silicon-based power devices are still the incumbent solutions used for power applications and currently have a lower-cost advantage. However, given the speed, power and size advantages of an integrated GaN IC over a silicon solution, coupled with expected cost reductions, we estimate that system cost parity for GaN-based (vs. silicon-based) mobile chargers with output power of 65 W or above was reached in 2023. In higher-power systems, such as kW-level data center supplies, we believe the cost-parity point was reached even earlier, based on customer feedback.
Although we believe system cost parity for these GaN-based applications was reached in 2023, there are inherent risks that market conditions may change, which include:
• GaN wafer and assembly (packaging) prices may not be reduced by suppliers as fast as expected or committed, especially if global semiconductor shortages occur.
• GaN manufacturing yields, while demonstrated over 90% on a stable, multi-month basis, could deteriorate causing manufacturing costs of GaN ICs to increase.
• The cost of silicon controllers, which are an important complement to GaN power ICs used in all mobile chargers, is expected to decrease, but price increases could occur, particularly if global semiconductor shortages occur. Such costs are not directly controlled by Navitas.
• Passive and mechanical components (inductors, transformers, capacitors, printed circuit boards (PCBs), plastic housings, and others) are an important complement to GaN power ICs, are used in all mobile chargers and contribute to cost reduction as they generally decrease in size, weight and cost as GaN increases charger switching frequency compared to silicon-based chargers. Although we expect these cost reductions for passive and
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mechanical components to continue, it is possible that they will not materialize as expected, and such costs are not directly controlled by Navitas.
Even in the absence of shortages in the semiconductor industry, corresponding components in silicon-based chargers may increase, allowing GaN-based chargers to achieve expected system cost parity on a relative basis. With respect to SiC, the market has been supply-restricted, and in 2023 Navitas entered into long-term supply agreements to increase raw-material availability and manufacturing capacity.
Manufacturability
We utilize a fabless business model, working with third parties to manufacture, assemble and test our products.
Navitas devices are fabricated in a layer of GaN sitting on a silicon substrate (known as “GaN-on-Si”). This combination traditionally posed several challenges due to physical dissimilarities in the materials and resulting defect densities, which translated into poor manufacturing, low yields, high costs, and poor reliability. We have spent a significant amount of our history working to solve these problems through process and design improvements and test methods. As a result of these efforts, we have achieved stable, predictable, and consistent yields of well over 90%.
Gallium is produced primarily as a byproduct from the production of bauxite, the chief ore of aluminum. In 2017 world production capacity was estimated at over 1,000 tons (low-grade and refined), and is estimated to be growing at about 15% per year, with a supply potential of over 2,000 tons sourced from many countries. Semiconductor applications dominate the commercial demand for gallium, representing 98% of its use, which includes microwave circuits, ultra high-speed logic chips, LEDs, laser diodes and, as is the case for Navitas GaN power ICs, in power electronics. Gallium is not considered a rare or precious metal. GaN power ICs typically use only 95 µg (micrograms) of gallium per devi in the manufacture of a device. On this basis we estimate Navitas will consume less than .01% of the 2,000 tons estimated annual supply potential by 2026.
Our GaN wafer fab partner since inception has been Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC). We have worked to co-develop GaN-based product manufacturing capabilities with TSMC, which has invested significant capital to develop this capability. Although we have no volume-contracted commitments with TSMC, and purchase wafers on a purchase-order basis, we believe our volumes of GaN products in TSMC wafer fabs are critical to the utilization and efficiency of TSMC’s GaN-specific infrastructure. TSMC operates as a leading global supplier, with significant capacity to meet our growth needs. Our process is compatible with multiple complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (“CMOS”) foundries with the addition of a small number of GaN-specific process modules. Navitas’ SiC products are manufactured by XFAB Texas, Inc. on 150 mm wafers, with high yields and lead times we believe are around half that of competitors. In 2023, Navitas entered into long-term supply agreements with XFAB and raw wafer suppliers to establish capacity increases.
Research & Development
Navitas has invested its time and effort to carefully develop its proprietary GaN IC chips for power electronics and semiconductor applications. Our experienced teams around the world have made GaN adoption a reality as many end customers in different end markets start to realize the true potential of our GaN power ICs. To protect our market leadership in GaN ICs, we continually look to innovate and improve our GaN ICs, to achieve greater efficiency, integration and speed at lower costs. We evaluate various complementary technologies, look to improve our PDK and hope to keep introducing newer generations of GaN technology. In 2022, Navitas acquired GeneSiC Semiconductor for SiC MOSFETs and diodes with plans to accelerate research and development and adoption of the expansive GeneSiC SiC portfolio. Navitas’ research and development activities are located primarily in the U.S., China and Taiwan.
Sustainability
We believe we are the first company to publish a sustainability report that comprehensively quantifies the positive impact of GaN power semiconductors on climate change based on global standards. Our report includes a third-party Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) of GaN technology according to ISO14040/14044, the international standard for assessing environmental impacts throughout a product’s life cycle—from raw material acquisition through production, use, end-of-
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life treatment, recycling and final disposal. The Navitas report also quantifies corporate greenhouse gas (GHG) impacts through 3rd party assessments. We estimate that each GaN power IC shipped saves a net 4 kg of CO 2 emissions, and each SiC MOSFET saves 25 kg. Combined, GaN and SiC are estimated to save an aggregate of 6 Gtons of CO 2 emissions per year by 2050.
Human Capital Resources
As of December 31, 2023, our worldwide workforce consisted of 314 full and part-time employees. Our approach to compensation attempts to align the interests of every employee with the creation of company value over time. The Company offers a wide variety of benefits for employees around the world and invests in tools and resources that are designed to support employees’ individual growth and development.