American Homes 4 Rent 10-K

ITEM 9A. CONTROLS AND PROCEDURES American Homes 4 Rent Evaluation of Disclosure Controls and Procedures As of December 31, 2022, the Company performed an evaluation, under the supervision of the Company’s Chief Executive Officer (“CEO”) and Chief Financial Officer (“CFO”), of the effectiveness of the design and operation of our disclosure controls and procedures, as defined in Rule 13a-15(e) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended. These controls and procedures have been designed to ensure that information required for disclosure is recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the requisite time periods and that such information is accumulated and communicated to its management. Based on the Company’s evaluation, the CEO and CFO concluded that the Company’s disclosure controls and procedures were effective as of December 31, 2022. Changes in Internal Controls over Financial Reporting There have been no changes to the Company’s internal controls over financial reporting that occurred during the Company’s last fiscal quarter of the year ended December 31, 2022, that materially affected, or were reasonably likely to materially affect, the Company’s internal control over financial reporting. Limitations on Effectiveness of Controls and Procedures In designing and evaluating the disclosure controls and procedures, management recognizes that any controls and procedures, no matter how well designed and operated, can provide only reasonable assurance of achieving the desired control objectives. In addition, the design of disclosure controls and procedures must reflect the fact that there are resource constraints and that management is required to apply judgment in evaluating the benefits of possible controls and procedures relative to their costs. Management’s Report on Internal Control over Financial Reporting The Company’s management is responsible for establishing and maintaining adequate internal control over financial reporting for the Company. Internal control over financial reporting is a process to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of the Company’s financial reporting for external purposes in accordance with GAAP. Internal control over financial reporting includes maintaining records that in reasonable detail accurately and fairly reflect the Company’s transactions; providing reasonable assurance that transactions are recorded as necessary for preparation of our financial statements; providing reasonable assurance that receipts and expenditures of Company assets are made in accordance with management authorization; and providing reasonable assurance that unauthorized acquisition, use or disposition of Company assets that could have a material effect on our financial statements would be prevented or detected on a timely basis. Because of its inherent limitations, internal control over financial reporting is not intended to provide absolute assurance that a misstatement of our financial statements would be prevented or detected. Management conducted an evaluation of the effectiveness of the Company’s internal control over financial reporting based on the 2013 framework in Internal Control—Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission. Based on this evaluation, management concluded that the Company’s internal control over financial reporting was effective as of December 31, 2022. Ernst & Young LLP, an independent registered public accounting firm that audited the Company’s consolidated financial statements included in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, has issued an attestation report on the Company’s internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2022, which is presented at the end of this “Item 9A. Controls and Procedures.” American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Evaluation of Disclosure Controls and Procedures As of December 31, 2022, the Operating Partnership performed an evaluation, under the supervision of the general partner’s CEO and CFO, of the effectiveness of the design and operation of our disclosure controls and procedures, as defined in Rule 13a-15(e) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended. These controls and procedures have been designed to ensure that information required for disclosure is recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the requisite time periods and that such information is accumulated and communicated to its management. Based on the Operating Partnership’s evaluation, the general partner’s CEO and CFO concluded that the Operating Partnership’s disclosure controls and procedures were effective as of December 31, 2022. 41 Changes in Internal Controls over Financial Reporting There have been no changes to the Operating Partnership’s internal controls over financial reporting that occurred during the Operating Partnership’s last fiscal quarter of the year ended December 31, 2022, that materially affected, or were reasonably likely to materially affect, the Operating Partnership’s internal control over financial reporting. Limitations on Effectiveness of Controls and Procedures In designing and evaluating the disclosure controls and procedures, management recognizes that any controls and procedures, no matter how well designed and operated, can provide only reasonable assurance of achieving the desired control objectives. In addition, the design of disclosure controls and procedures must reflect the fact that there are resource constraints and that management is required to apply judgment in evaluating the benefits of possible controls and procedures relative to their costs. Management’s Report on Internal Control over Financial Reporting The Operating Partnership’s management is responsible for establishing and maintaining adequate internal control over financial reporting for the Operating Partnership. Internal control over financial reporting is a process to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of the Operating Partnership’s financial reporting for external purposes in accordance with GAAP. Internal control over financial reporting includes maintaining records that in reasonable detail accurately and fairly reflect the Operating Partnership’s transactions; providing reasonable assurance that transactions are recorded as necessary for preparation of the Operating Partnership’s financial statements; providing reasonable assurance that receipts and expenditures of the Operating Partnership’s assets are made in accordance with management authorization; and providing reasonable assurance that unauthorized acquisition, use or disposition of the Operating Partnership’s assets that could have a material effect on the Operating Partnership’s financial statements would be prevented or detected on a timely basis. Because of its inherent limitations, internal control over financial reporting is not intended to provide absolute assurance that a misstatement of the Operating Partnership’s financial statements would be prevented or detected. Management conducted an evaluation of the effectiveness of the Operating Partnership’s internal control over financial reporting based on the 2013 framework in Internal Control—Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission. Based on this evaluation, management concluded that the Operating Partnership’s internal control over financial reporting was effective as of December 31, 2022. 42 Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm To the Shareholders and Board of Trustees of American Homes 4 Rent Opinion on Internal Control over Financial Reporting We have audited American Homes 4 Rent’s internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2022, based on criteria established in Internal Control—Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (2013 framework) (the COSO criteria). In our opinion, American Homes 4 Rent (the Company) maintained, in all material aspects, effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2022, based on the COSO criteria. We also have audited, in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB), the consolidated balance sheets of the Company as of December 31, 2022 and 2021, the related consolidated statements of operations, comprehensive income, equity and cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2022, and the related notes and financial statement schedule listed in the Index at Item 15(a) and our report dated February 24, 2023 expressed an unqualified opinion thereon. Basis for Opinion The Company’s management is responsible for maintaining effective internal control over financial reporting, and for its assessment of the effectiveness of internal control over financial reporting included in the accompanying Management’s Report on Internal Control Over Financial Reporting. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on the Company’s internal control over financial reporting based on our audit. We are a public accounting firm registered with the PCAOB and are required to be independent with respect to the Company in accordance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB. We conducted our audit in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether effective internal control over financial reporting was maintained in all material respects. Our audit included obtaining an understanding of internal control over financial reporting, assessing the risk that a material weakness exists, testing and evaluating the design and operating effectiveness of internal control based on the assessed risk, and performing such other procedures as we considered necessary in the circumstances. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion. Definition and Limitations of Internal Control Over Financial Reporting A company’s internal control over financial reporting is a process designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of financial reporting and the preparation of financial statements for external purposes in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. A company’s internal control over financial reporting includes those policies and procedures that (1) pertain to the maintenance of records that, in reasonable detail, accurately and fairly reflect the transactions and dispositions of the assets of the company; (2) provide reasonable assurance that transactions are recorded as necessary to permit preparation of financial statements in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles, and that receipts and expenditures of the company are being made only in accordance with authorizations of management and directors of the company; and (3) provide reasonable assurance regarding prevention or timely detection of unauthorized acquisition, use, or disposition of the company’s assets that could have a material effect on the financial statements. Because of its inherent limitations, internal control over financial reporting may not prevent or detect misstatements. Also, projections of any evaluation of effectiveness to future periods are subject to the risk that controls may become inadequate because of changes in conditions, or that the degree of compliance with the policies or procedures may deteriorate. /s/ Ernst & Young LLP Los Angeles, California February 24, 2023 43 ITEM 9B. OTHER INFORMATION None. ITEM 9C. DISCLOSURE REGARDING FOREIGN JURISDICTIONS THAT PREVENT INSPECTIONS Not applicable. 44 PART III ITEM 10. DIRECTORS, EXECUTIVE OFFICERS AND CORPORATE GOVERNANCE The information required by this item with respect to trustees, executive officers and, to the extent applicable, Section 16(a) compliance will be included in the Company’s definitive proxy statement for the 2023 Annual Meeting to be filed with the SEC within 120 days of the fiscal year ended December 31, 2022 (the “2023 Proxy Statement”) and is incorporated herein by reference. The information required by this item with respect to the nominating process, the audit committee and the audit committee financial expert will be included in the 2023 Proxy Statement and is incorporated herein by reference. The information required by this item with respect to a code of ethics will be included in the 2023 Proxy Statement and is incorporated herein by reference. Any amendments to or waivers of the code of ethics granted to the Company’s executive officers or the controller will be published promptly on our website or by other appropriate means in accordance with SEC rules and regulations. ITEM 11. EXECUTIVE COMPENSATION The information required by this item will be included in the 2023 Proxy Statement and is incorporated herein by reference. ITEM 12. SECURITY OWNERSHIP OF CERTAIN BENEFICIAL OWNERS AND MANAGEMENT AND RELATED STOCKHOLDER MATTERS The information required by this item, other than the table below, will be included in the 2023 Proxy Statement and is incorporated herein by reference. The following table sets forth information as of December 31, 2022 for the Company’s equity compensation plan: Plan Category Number of securities to be issued upon exercise of outstanding options, warrants and rights (a) Weighted-average exercise price of outstanding options, warrants and rights (b) Number of securities remaining available for future issuance under equity compensation plans (excluding securities reflected in column (a)) (c) Equity compensation plans approved by security holders (1) 2,344,118 (2) $ 17.97 (3) 11,485,007 (4) Equity compensation plans not approved by security holders — $ — — (1) The Company’s equity compensation plans, the 2012 Equity Incentive Plan and the 2021 Equity Incentive Plan (collectively, the “Plans”), and the 2021 Employee Stock Purchase Plan (the “2021 ESPP”), are described more fully in Note 10. Share-Based Compensation to the consolidated financial statements included as a separate section in Part IV, “Item 15. Exhibit and Financial Statement Schedules” of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. The Plans and the 2021 ESPP were approved by the Company’s shareholders. (2) Includes restricted share units granted under the Plans, which, subject to vesting requirements, will convert in the future to common stock on a one-for-one basis. Also includes the maximum number of shares that may be issued upon settlement of outstanding performance-based restricted share units. (3) Excludes restricted share units and performance-based restricted share units. (4) As of December 31, 2022, 8,600,552 shares and 2,884,455 shares are remaining available for future issuances under the Plans and the 2021 ESPP, respectively. ITEM 13. CERTAIN RELATIONSHIPS AND RELATED TRANSACTIONS, AND DIRECTOR INDEPENDENCE The information required by this item will be included in the 2023 Proxy Statement and is incorporated herein by reference. ITEM 14. PRINCIPAL ACCOUNTANT FEES AND SERVICES The information required by this item will be included in the 2023 Proxy Statement and is incorporated herein by reference. 45 PART IV ITEM 15. EXHIBIT AND FINANCIAL STATEMENT SCHEDULES (a) (1) and (2) Financial Statements and Financial Statement Schedules The financial statements and financial statement schedule required by this item are included as a separate section of this Annual Report on Form 10-K beginning on page F-1. Page Reports of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm (PCAOB ID 000 42 ) F- 1 Audited Consolidated Financial Statements: American Homes 4 Rent Consolidated Balance Sheets as of December 31, 2022 and 2021 F- 5 Consolidated Statements of Operations for the Years Ended December 31, 202 2 , 202 1 , and 20 20 F- 6 Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income for the Years Ended December 31, 202 2 , 202 1 , and 20 20 F- 7 Consolidated Statements of Equity for the Years Ended December 31, 202 2 , 202 1 , and 20 20 F- 8 Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows for the Years Ended December 31, 202 2 , 202 1 , and 20 20 F- 10 American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Consolidated Balance Sheets as of December 31, 202 2 and 202 1 F- 12 Consolidated Statements of Operations for the Years Ended December 31, 202 2 , 202 1 , and 20 20 F- 13 Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income for the Years Ended December 31, 202 2 , 202 1 , and 20 20 F- 14 Consolidated Statements of Capital for the Years Ended December 31, 202 2 , 202 1 , and 20 20 F- 15 Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows for the Years Ended December 31, 202 2 , 202 1 , and 20 20 F- 17 Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements F- 19 Schedule III—Real Estate and Accumulated Depreciation as of December 31, 202 2 F- 46 All other schedules are omitted because they are either not required, are not applicable, or the information is included in the consolidated financial statements and notes thereto. (a) (3) Exhibits Exhibit Number Exhibit Document 3.1 Articles of Amendment and Restatement of Declaration of Trust of American Homes 4 Rent (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 3.1 to Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-189103) filed June 25, 2013.) 3.2 First Articles of Amendment to Articles of Amendment and Restatement of Declaration of Trust of American Homes 4 Rent (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 3.2 to Amendment No. 2 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-189103) filed July 19, 2013.) 3.3 Articles Supplementary for American Homes 4 Rent 5.875% Series G Cumulative Redeemable Perpetual Preferred Shares (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 3.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed July 12, 2017.) 3.4 Articles Supplementary for American Homes 4 Rent 6.25% Series H Cumulative Redeemable Perpetual Preferred Shares (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 3.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed September 14, 2018.) 3.5 Amended and Restated Bylaws of American Homes 4 Rent (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 3.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed March 10, 2020.) 4.1 Form of Indenture (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.4 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-3 (Registration Number 333-221878) filed December 1, 2017.) 4.2 Indenture, dated as of February 7, 2018, between American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.1 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed February 7, 2018.) 4.3 First Supplemental Indenture, dated as of February 7, 2018, among American Homes 4 Rent, L.P., American Residential Properties OP, L.P. and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.2 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed February 7, 2018.) 4.4 Form of Global Note representing the Notes (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.3 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed February 7, 2018.) 46 Exhibit Number Exhibit Document 4.5 Second Supplemental Indenture, dated as of January 23, 2019, among American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.2 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed January 23, 2019.) 4.6 Form of Global Note representing the Notes (Incorporated by reference to and included in Exhibit 4.3 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed January 23, 2019.) 4.7 Description of Securities. Filed herewith. 4.8 Third Supplemental Indenture, dated as of July 8, 2021, between American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.2 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed July 8, 2021.) 4.9 Form of Global Note representing the 2031 Notes (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.4 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed July 8, 2021.) 4.10 Fourth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of July 8, 2021, between American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.3 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed July 8, 2021.) 4.11 Form of Global Note representing the 2051 Notes (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.5 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed July 8, 2021.) 4.12 Fifth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of April 7, 2022, between American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. and U.S. Bank, National Association, as trustee (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.2 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed April 7, 2022.) 4.13 Form of Global Note representing the 2032 Notes (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.4 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed April 7, 2022.) 4.14 Sixth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of April 7, 2022, between American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. and U.S. Bank, National Association, as trustee (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.3 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed April 7, 2022.) 4.15 Form of Global Note representing the 2052 Notes (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.5 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed April 7, 2022.) 10.1 Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-189103) filed June 25, 2013.) 10.2 First Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.2 to Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-189103) filed June 25, 2013.) 10.3 Amended and Restated Second Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.3 to Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-189103) filed June 25, 2013.) 10.4 Third Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.4 to Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-189103) filed June 25, 2013.) 10.5 Fourth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.5 to Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-189103) filed June 25, 2013.) 10.6 Fifth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.6 to Post-Effective Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-191015) filed October 25, 2013.) 10.7 Sixth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.7 to Post-Effective Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-192592) filed December 27, 2013.) 10.8 Seventh Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.8 to Post-Effective Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-195575) filed May 1, 2014.) 10.9 Eighth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.2 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed September 25, 2014.) 10.10 Ninth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.39 to the Company's Annual Report on Form 10-K filed March 2, 2015.) 10.11 Tenth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.41 to the Company's Annual Report on Form 10-K filed February 26, 2016.) 47 Exhibit Number Exhibit Document 10.12 Eleventh Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.2 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed May 17, 2016.) 10.13 Twelfth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed June 22, 2016.) 10.14 Thirteenth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rents, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed April 21, 2017.) 10.15 Fourteenth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rents, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed July 12, 2017.) 10.16 Fifteenth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed September 14, 2018.) 10.17 Sixteenth Amendment to Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.17 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K filed February 22, 2019.) 10.18 Agreement of Limited Partnership of American Residential Properties OP, L.P. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 3.3 to American Residential Properties, Inc.'s Amendment No. 1 to Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration No. 333-187450) filed April 22, 2013.) 10.19 Loan Agreement dated as of September 19, 2014 between AMH 2014-2 Borrower, LLC, as Borrower and Goldman Sachs Bank USA, as Lender (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed September 25, 2014.) 10.20 Loan Agreement dated as of November 25, 2014 between AMH 2014-3 Borrower, LLC, as Borrower and Goldman Sachs Bank USA, as Lender (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed December 2, 2014.) 10.21 Loan Agreement dated as of March 6, 2015 between AMH 2015-1 Borrower, LLC, as Borrower and Goldman Sachs Mortgage Company, as Lender (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed March 11, 2015.) 10.22 Loan Agreement dated as of September 22, 2015 between AMH 2015-2 Borrower, LLC, as Borrower and Goldman Sachs Mortgage Company, as Lender (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed September 23, 2015.) 10.23 Property Management Agreement dated June 16, 2014 among American Homes 4 Rent II, LLC, American homes 4 Rent Management Holdings Company, LLC and American Homes 4 Rent, LLC (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.2 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed June 19, 2014.) 10.24 † Amended and Restated American Homes 4 Rent 2012 Equity Incentive Plan (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.26 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K filed February 24, 2017.) 10.25 † Form of Nonqualified Share Option Agreement (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.18 to Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-189103) filed June 25, 2013.) 10.26 † Form of Restricted Share Unit Agreement (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.24 to the Company's Annual Report on Form 10-K filed March 26, 2014.) 10.27 † American Homes 4 Rent 2021 Equity Incentive Plan (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.2 to the Company’s Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q filed August 6, 2021.) 10.28 † Form of Restricted Share Unit Agreement – Retention (2021) (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.29 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K filed February 25, 2022.) 10.29 † Form of Restricted Share Unit Agreement – Time-Vesting for Vice Presidents and Above (2021) (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.30 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K filed February 25, 2022.) 10.30 † Form of Restricted Share Unit Agreement – Performance-Vesting for Vice Presidents and Above (2021) (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.31 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K filed February 25, 2022.) 10.31 † Form of Restricted Share Unit Agreement for Non-Management Trustees (2021) (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.32 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K filed February 25, 2022.) 10.32 † Form of Restricted Share Unit Agreement – Time-Vesting for Vice Presidents and Above (2023). Filed herewith. 10.33 † Form of Restricted Share Unit Agreement – Performance-Vesting for Vice Presidents and Above (2023). Filed herewith. 10.34 † Form of Indemnification Agreement with Trustees and Executive Officers (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.19 to Amendment No. 1 to the Company's Registration Statement on Form S-11 (Registration Number 333-189103) filed June 25, 2013.) 10.35 Amendment Number Seven to the Master Loan and Security Agreement. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed June 9, 2016.) 48 Exhibit Number Exhibit Document 10.36 Amended and Restated Credit Agreement, dated April 15, 2021, by and among American Homes 4 Rent, L.P., as Borrower, American Homes 4 Rent, as Parent, Wells Fargo Bank, National Association, as Agent, and the other lending institutions that are parties thereto, as Lenders.( Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed April 19, 2021) 10.37 † Form of Severance and Change of Control Letter Agreement. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed February 15, 2022.) 10.38 † Form of Consulting Agreement between American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. and John Corrigan. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.2 to the Company’s Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q filed August 5, 2022.) 21.1 List of Subsidiaries of American Homes 4 Rent and American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Filed herewith. 23.1 Consent of independent registered public accounting firm of American Homes 4 Rent and American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Filed herewith. 24.1 Power of Attorney (included on the signature page of this Form 10-K). Filed herewith. 31.1 Certification of Chief Executive Officer of American Homes 4 Rent pursuant to Rule 13a-14(a)/15d-14(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. Filed herewith. 31.2 Certification of Chief Financial Officer of American Homes 4 Rent pursuant to Rule 13a-14(a)/15d-14(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. Filed herewith. 31.3 Certification of Chief Executive Officer of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. pursuant to Rule 13a-14(a)/15d-14(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. Filed herewith. 31.4 Certification of Chief Financial Officer of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. pursuant to Rule 13a-14(a)/15d-14(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. Filed herewith. 32.1 Certification of Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer of American Homes 4 Rent pursuant to 18 U.S.C. 1350. Filed herewith. 32.2 Certification of Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. pursuant to 18 U.S.C. 1350. Filed herewith. 101.INS Inline XBRL Instance Document - the instance document does not appear in the Interactive Data File because its XBRL tags are embedded within the Inline XBRL document. 101.SCH Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Schema Document 101.CAL Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Calculation Linkbase Document 101.DEF Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Definition Linkbase Document 101.LAB Inline XBRL Taxonomy Label Linkbase Document 101.PRE Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Presentation Linkbase Document 104 Cover Page Interactive Data File (formatted as Inline XBRL and contained in Exhibit 101) _______________________________________________________________________________ † Indicates management contract or compensatory plan ITEM 16. FORM 10-K SUMMARY None. 49 SIGNATURES Pursuant to the requirements of Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the registrant has duly caused this report to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned, thereunto duly authorized, on February 24, 2023. AMERICAN HOMES 4 RENT By: /s/ DAVID P. SINGELYN David P. Singelyn, Chief Executive Officer Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, this report has been signed below on February 24, 2023 by the following persons on behalf of the registrant and in the capacities indicated. By: /s/ DAVID P. SINGELYN David P. Singelyn Chief Executive Officer and Trustee (Principal Executive Officer) By: /s/ CHRISTOPHER C. LAU Christopher C. Lau Chief Financial Officer (Principal Financial Officer) By: /s/ BRIAN F. REITZ Brian F. Reitz Executive Vice President, Chief Accounting Officer (Principal Accounting Officer) By: /s/ DOUGLAS N. BENHAM Douglas N. Benham (Trustee) By: /s/ JACK CORRIGAN Jack Corrigan (Trustee) By: /s/ DAVID GOLDBERG David Goldberg (Trustee) By: /s/ TAMARA HUGHES GUSTAVSON Tamara Hughes Gustavson (Trustee) By: /s/ MATTHEW J. HART Matthew J. Hart (Trustee) By: /s/ MICHELLE C. KERRICK Michelle C. Kerrick (Trustee) By: /s/ JAMES H. KROPP James H. Kropp (Trustee) By: /s/ LYNN C. SWANN Lynn C. Swann (Trustee) By: /s/ WINIFRED M. WEBB Winifred M. Webb (Trustee) By: /s/ JAY WILLOUGHBY Jay Willoughby (Trustee) By: /s/ KENNETH M. WOOLLEY Kenneth M. Woolley (Trustee) By: /s/ MATTHEW R. ZAIST Matthew R. Zaist (Trustee) 50 SIGNATURES Pursuant to the requirements of Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the registrant has duly caused this report to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned, thereunto duly authorized, on February 24, 2023. AMERICAN HOMES 4 RENT, L.P. By: American Homes 4 Rent, its General Partner By: /s/ DAVID P. SINGELYN David P. Singelyn, Chief Executive Officer Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, this report has been signed below on February 24, 2023, by the following persons on behalf of American Homes 4 Rent, as sole general partner of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P., the registrant, and in the capacities indicated. By: /s/ DAVID P. SINGELYN David P. Singelyn Chief Executive Officer and Trustee (Principal Executive Officer) By: /s/ CHRISTOPHER C. LAU Christopher C. Lau Chief Financial Officer (Principal Financial Officer) By: /s/ BRIAN F. REITZ Brian F. Reitz Executive Vice President, Chief Accounting Officer (Principal Accounting Officer) By: /s/ DOUGLAS N. BENHAM Douglas N. Benham (Trustee) By: /s/ JACK CORRIGAN Jack Corrigan (Trustee) By: /s/ DAVID GOLDBERG David Goldberg (Trustee) By: /s/ TAMARA HUGHES GUSTAVSON Tamara Hughes Gustavson (Trustee) By: /s/ MATTHEW J. HART Matthew J. Hart (Trustee) By: /s/ MICHELLE C. KERRICK Michelle C. Kerrick (Trustee) By: /s/ JAMES H. KROPP James H. Kropp (Trustee) By: /s/ LYNN C. SWANN Lynn C. Swann (Trustee) By: /s/ WINIFRED M. WEBB Winifred M. Webb (Trustee) By: /s/ JAY WILLOUGHBY Jay Willoughby (Trustee) By: /s/ KENNETH M. WOOLLEY Kenneth M. Woolley (Trustee) By: /s/ MATTHEW R. ZAIST Matthew R. Zaist (Trustee) 51 Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm To the Shareholders and Board of Trustees of American Homes 4 Rent Opinion on the Financial Statements We have audited the accompanying consolidated balance sheets of American Homes 4 Rent (the Company) as of December 31, 2022 and 2021, the related consolidated statements of operations, comprehensive income, equity and cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2022, and the related notes and financial statement schedule listed in the Index at Item 15(a) (collectively referred to as the “consolidated financial statements”). In our opinion, the consolidated financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company at December 31, 2022 and 2021, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2022, in conformity with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles. We also have audited, in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB), the Company’s internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2022, based on criteria established in Internal Control-Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (2013 framework), and our report dated February 24, 2023 expressed an unqualified opinion thereon. Basis for Opinion These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company’s management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on the Company’s financial statements based on our audits. We are a public accounting firm registered with the PCAOB and are required to be independent with respect to the Company in accordance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB. We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement, whether due to error or fraud. Our audits included performing procedures to assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to error or fraud, and performing procedures that respond to those risks. Such procedures included examining, on a test basis, evidence regarding the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. Our audits also included evaluating the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion. Critical Audit Matter The critical audit matter communicated below is a matter arising from the current period audit of the financial statements that was communicated or required to be communicated to the audit committee and that: (1) relates to accounts or disclosures that are material to the financial statements and (2) involved especially challenging, subjective or complex judgments. The communication of the critical audit matter does not alter in any way our opinion on the consolidated financial statements, taken as a whole, and we are not, by communicating the critical audit matter below, providing a separate opinion on the critical audit matter or on the accounts or disclosures to which it relates. F-1 Purchase price accounting Description of the Matter For the year ended December 31, 2022, the Company completed the acquisition of 1,605 single-family properties for a total purchase price of $571.8 million. As explained in Note 2 to the consolidated financial statements, the transactions were accounted for as asset acquisitions, and as such, are recorded at the price to acquire the single-family property, including acquisition costs. The purchase price is allocated to the acquired components, which consist principally of land and buildings, based upon their relative fair values, which were determined using the Company’s own knowledge obtained from published market data such as county tax assessment records and supplemented by the Company’s historical cost to construct a home. Auditing the accounting for the Company’s 2022 acquisitions of single-family properties was challenging because the determination of the relative fair values of the acquired land and buildings involved a higher degree of subjectivity due to the lack of availability of direct comparable market information. How We Addressed the Matter in Our Audit We obtained an understanding, evaluated the design, and tested the operating effectiveness of controls over management’s accounting for acquired single-family properties, including controls over the review of assumptions underlying the purchase price allocation and accuracy of the underlying data used. For example, we tested controls over the determination of the fair value of the land and buildings and underlying inputs and assumptions used to develop those estimates. Management’s review of the allocated values included use of historical data and current internal construction costs to validate the reasonableness of the allocated land and building values. For the 2022 single-family property acquisitions described above, our procedures included, among others, an evaluation of the methods and significant assumptions used by the Company and an evaluation of the sensitivity of changes in the significant assumptions on the purchase price allocation. For a sample of acquisitions, we read the purchase and sale agreements and tested the completeness and accuracy of the underlying data supporting the significant inputs and assumptions. For example, on a sub-market basis, we compared the allocated land and building values to the historical results of single-family properties acquired in the prior years. We also performed a sensitivity analysis to evaluate the impact on the Company’s financial statements resulting from changes in allocated building values. In addition, for certain of these asset acquisitions, our valuation specialists performed corroborative calculations to assess whether management’s allocations were supported by observable market data. Specifically, our valuation specialists utilized alternative data sources to develop a range of independent estimates of the land and building fair values to evaluate the reasonableness of management’s allocations. /s/ Ernst & Young LLP We have served as the Company’s auditor since 2016. Los Angeles, California February 24, 2023 F-2 Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm To the Partners of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Opinion on the Financial Statements We have audited the accompanying consolidated balance sheets of American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. (the Operating Partnership) as of December 31, 2022 and 2021, the related consolidated statements of operations, comprehensive income, capital and cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2022, and the related notes and financial statement schedule listed in the Index at Item 15(a) (collectively referred to as the “consolidated financial statements”). In our opinion, the consolidated financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Operating Partnership at December 31, 2022 and 2021, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended December 31, 2022, in conformity with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles. Basis for Opinion These financial statements are the responsibility of the Operating Partnership’s management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on the Operating Partnership’s financial statements based on our audits. We are a public accounting firm registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB) and are required to be independent with respect to the Operating Partnership in accordance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission and the PCAOB. We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the PCAOB. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement, whether due to error or fraud. The Operating Partnership is not required to have, nor were we engaged to perform, an audit of its internal control over financial reporting. As part of our audits we are required to obtain an understanding of internal control over financial reporting but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the Operating Partnership’s internal control over financial reporting. Accordingly, we express no such opinion. Our audits included performing procedures to assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial statements, whether due to error or fraud, and performing procedures that respond to those risks. Such procedures included examining, on a test basis, evidence regarding the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. Our audits also included evaluating the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion. Critical Audit Matter The critical audit matter communicated below is a matter arising from the current period audit of the financial statements that was communicated or required to be communicated to the audit committee and that: (1) relates to accounts or disclosures that are material to the financial statements and (2) involved especially challenging, subjective or complex judgments. The communication of the critical audit matter does not alter in any way our opinion on the consolidated financial statements, taken as a whole, and we are not, by communicating the critical audit matter below, providing a separate opinion on the critical audit matter or on the accounts or disclosures to which it relates. F-3 Purchase price accounting Description of the Matter For the year ended December 31, 2022, the Operating Partnership completed the acquisition of 1,605 single-family properties for a total purchase price of $571.8 million. As explained in Note 2 to the consolidated financial statements, the transactions were accounted for as asset acquisitions, and as such, are recorded at the price to acquire the single-family property, including acquisition costs. The purchase price is allocated to the acquired components, which consist principally of land and buildings, based upon their relative fair values, which were determined using the Operating Partnership’s own knowledge obtained from published market data such as county tax assessment records and supplemented by the Operating Partnership’s historical cost to construct a home. Auditing the accounting for the Operating Partnership’s 2022 acquisitions of single-family properties was challenging because the determination of the relative fair values of the acquired land and buildings involved a higher degree of subjectivity due to the lack of availability of direct comparable market information. How We Addressed the Matter in Our Audit We obtained an understanding, evaluated the design, and tested the operating effectiveness of controls over management’s accounting for acquired single-family properties, including controls over the review of assumptions underlying the purchase price allocation and accuracy of the underlying data used. For example, we tested controls over the determination of the fair value of the land and buildings and underlying inputs and assumptions used to develop those estimates. Management’s review of the allocated values included use of historical data and current internal construction costs to validate the reasonableness of the allocated land and building values. For the 2022 single-family property acquisitions described above, our procedures included, among others, an evaluation of the methods and significant assumptions used by the Operating Partnership and an evaluation of the sensitivity of changes in the significant assumptions on the purchase price allocation. For a sample of acquisitions, we read the purchase and sale agreements and tested the completeness and accuracy of the underlying data supporting the significant inputs and assumptions. For example, on a sub-market basis, we compared the allocated land and building values to the historical results of single-family properties acquired in the prior years. We also performed a sensitivity analysis to evaluate the impact on the Operating Partnership’s financial statements resulting from changes in allocated building values. In addition, for certain of these asset acquisitions, our valuation specialists performed corroborative calculations to assess whether management’s allocations were supported by observable market data. Specifically, our valuation specialists utilized alternative data sources to develop a range of independent estimates of the land and building fair values to evaluate the reasonableness of management’s allocations. /s/ Ernst & Young LLP We have served as the Operating Partnership’s auditor since 2017. Los Angeles, California February 24, 2023 F-4 American Homes 4 Rent Consolidated Balance Sheets (Amounts in thousands, except share data) December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 Assets Single-family properties: Land $ 2,197,233 $ 2,062,039 Buildings and improvements 10,127,891 9,258,387 Single-family properties in operation 12,325,124 11,320,426 Less: accumulated depreciation ( 2,386,452 ) ( 2,072,933 ) Single-family properties in operation, net 9,938,672 9,247,493 Single-family properties under development and development land 1,187,221 882,159 Single-family properties held for sale, net 198,716 114,907 Total real estate assets, net 11,324,609 10,244,559 Cash and cash equivalents 69,155 48,198 Restricted cash 148,805 143,569 Rent and other receivables 47,752 41,587 Escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets 331,446 216,625 Investments in unconsolidated joint ventures 107,347 121,950 Asset-backed securitization certificates 25,666 25,666 Goodwill 120,279 120,279 Total assets $ 12,175,059 $ 10,962,433 Liabilities Revolving credit facility $ 130,000 $ 350,000 Asset-backed securitizations, net 1,890,842 1,908,346 Unsecured senior notes, net 2,495,156 1,622,132 Accounts payable and accrued expenses 484,403 343,526 Total liabilities 5,000,401 4,224,004 Commitments and contingencies (see Note 14) Equity Shareholders' equity: Class A common shares ($ 0.01 par value per share, 450,000,000 shares authorized, 352,881,826 and 337,362,716 shares issued and outstanding at December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively) 3,529 3,374 Class B common shares ($ 0.01 par value per share, 50,000,000 shares authorized, 635,075 shares issued and outstanding at December 31, 2022 and 2021) 6 6 Preferred shares ($ 0.01 par value per share, 100,000,000 shares authorized, 9,200,000 and 15,400,000 shares issued and outstanding at December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively) 92 154 Additional paid-in capital 6,931,819 6,492,933 Accumulated deficit ( 440,791 ) ( 438,710 ) Accumulated other comprehensive income 1,332 1,814 Total shareholders' equity 6,495,987 6,059,571 Noncontrolling interest 678,671 678,858 Total equity 7,174,658 6,738,429 Total liabilities and equity $ 12,175,059 $ 10,962,433 The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements. F-5 American Homes 4 Rent Consolidated Statements of Operations (Amounts in thousands, except share and per share data) For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Rents and other single-family property revenues $ 1,490,534 $ 1,303,882 $ 1,172,514 Expenses: Property operating expenses 552,091 490,205 450,267 Property management expenses 112,698 96,865 89,892 General and administrative expense 68,057 56,444 48,517 Interest expense 134,871 114,893 117,038 Acquisition and other transaction costs 23,452 15,749 9,298 Depreciation and amortization 426,531 372,848 343,153 Hurricane-related charges, net 6,133 — — Total expenses 1,323,833 1,147,004 1,058,165 Gain on sale and impairment of single-family properties and other, net 136,459 49,696 38,773 Other income and expense, net 6,865 3,985 1,707 Net income 310,025 210,559 154,829 Noncontrolling interest 36,887 21,467 14,455 Dividends on preferred shares 17,081 37,923 55,128 Redemption of perpetual preferred shares 5,276 15,879 — Net income attributable to common shareholders $ 250,781 $ 135,290 $ 85,246 Weighted-average common shares outstanding: Basic 349,290,848 324,245,168 306,613,197 Diluted 349,787,092 325,518,291 307,074,747 Net income attributable to common shareholders per share: Basic $ 0.72 $ 0.42 $ 0.28 Diluted $ 0.71 $ 0.41 $ 0.28 The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements. F-6 American Homes 4 Rent Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Amounts in thousands) For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Net income $ 310,025 $ 210,559 $ 154,829 Other comprehensive loss: Cash flow hedging instruments: Loss on settlement of cash flow hedging instrument — ( 3,999 ) — Reclassification adjustment for amortization of interest expense included in net income ( 564 ) ( 771 ) ( 963 ) Other comprehensive loss ( 564 ) ( 4,770 ) ( 963 ) Comprehensive income 309,461 205,789 153,866 Comprehensive income attributable to noncontrolling interests 36,805 20,730 14,315 Dividends on preferred shares 17,081 37,923 55,128 Redemption of perpetual preferred shares 5,276 15,879 — Comprehensive income attributable to common shareholders $ 250,299 $ 131,257 $ 84,423 The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements. F-7 American Homes 4 Rent Consolidated Statements of Equity (Amounts in thousands, except share and per share data) Class A common shares Class B common shares Preferred shares Number of shares Amount Number of shares Amount Number of shares Amount Additional paid-in capital Accumulated deficit Accumulated other comprehensive income Shareholders’ equity Noncontrolling interest Total equity Balances at December 31, 2019 300,107,599 $ 3,001 635,075 $ 6 35,350,000 $ 354 $ 5,790,775 $ ( 465,368 ) $ 6,658 $ 5,335,426 $ 683,364 $ 6,018,790 Share-based compensation — — — — — — 9,834 — — 9,834 — 9,834 Common stock issued under share-based compensation plans, net of shares withheld for employee taxes 577,656 6 — — — — 5,354 — — 5,360 — 5,360 Issuance of Class A common shares, net of offering costs of $ 600 15,036,130 150 — — — — 413,350 — — 413,500 — 413,500 Redemptions of Class A units 300,000 3 — — — — 3,943 — 5 3,951 ( 3,951 ) — Distributions to equity holders: Preferred shares (Note 9) — — — — — — — ( 55,128 ) — ( 55,128 ) — ( 55,128 ) Noncontrolling interests — — — — — — — — — — ( 10,392 ) ( 10,392 ) Common shares ($ 0.20 per share) — — — — — — — ( 61,906 ) — ( 61,906 ) — ( 61,906 ) Cumulative effect of adoption of ASU 2016-13 — — — — — — — ( 1,494 ) — ( 1,494 ) — ( 1,494 ) Net income — — — — — — — 140,374 — 140,374 14,455 154,829 Total other comprehensive loss — — — — — — — — ( 823 ) ( 823 ) ( 140 ) ( 963 ) Balances at December 31, 2020 316,021,385 $ 3,160 635,075 $ 6 35,350,000 $ 354 $ 6,223,256 $ ( 443,522 ) $ 5,840 $ 5,789,094 $ 683,336 $ 6,472,430 Share-based compensation — — — — — — 17,792 — — 17,792 — 17,792 Common stock issued under share-based compensation plans, net of shares withheld for employee taxes 497,045 5 — — — — 1,538 — — 1,543 — 1,543 Issuance of Class A common shares, net of offering costs of $ 200 20,494,286 205 — — — — 728,405 — — 728,610 — 728,610 Redemptions of Class A units 350,000 4 — — — — 4,613 — 7 4,624 ( 4,624 ) — Redemption of Series D perpetual preferred shares — — — — ( 10,750,000 ) ( 108 ) ( 260,133 ) ( 8,509 ) — ( 268,750 ) — ( 268,750 ) Redemption of Series E perpetual preferred shares — — — — ( 9,200,000 ) ( 92 ) ( 222,538 ) ( 7,370 ) — ( 230,000 ) — ( 230,000 ) Distributions to equity holders: Preferred shares (Note 9) — — — — — — — ( 37,923 ) — ( 37,923 ) — ( 37,923 ) Noncontrolling interests — — — — — — — — — — ( 20,584 ) ( 20,584 ) Common shares ( 0.40 per share) — — — — — — — ( 130,478 ) — ( 130,478 ) — ( 130,478 ) Net income — — — — — — — 189,092 — 189,092 21,467 210,559 Total other comprehensive loss — — — — — — — — ( 4,033 ) ( 4,033 ) ( 737 ) ( 4,770 ) Balances at December 31, 2021 337,362,716 $ 3,374 635,075 $ 6 15,400,000 $ 154 $ 6,492,933 $ ( 438,710 ) $ 1,814 $ 6,059,571 $ 678,858 $ 6,738,429 F-8 American Homes 4 Rent Consolidated Statements of Equity (continued) (Amounts in thousands, except share and per share data) Class A common shares Class B common shares Preferred shares Number of shares Amount Number of shares Amount Number of shares Amount Additional paid-in capital Accumulated deficit Accumulated other comprehensive income Shareholders’ equity Noncontrolling interest Total equity Balances at December 31, 2021 337,362,716 $ 3,374 635,075 $ 6 15,400,000 $ 154 $ 6,492,933 $ ( 438,710 ) $ 1,814 $ 6,059,571 $ 678,858 $ 6,738,429 Share-based compensation — — — — — — 27,308 — — 27,308 — 27,308 Common stock issued under share-based compensation plans, net of shares withheld for employee taxes 519,110 5 — — — — 118 — — 123 — 123 Issuance of Class A common shares, net of offering costs of $ 200 15,000,000 150 — — — — 561,122 — — 561,272 — 561,272 Redemption of Series F perpetual preferred shares — — — — ( 6,200,000 ) ( 62 ) ( 149,662 ) ( 5,276 ) — ( 155,000 ) — ( 155,000 ) Distributions to equity holders: Preferred shares (Note 9) — — — — — — — ( 17,081 ) — ( 17,081 ) — ( 17,081 ) Noncontrolling interests — — — — — — — — — — ( 36,992 ) ( 36,992 ) Common shares ($ 0.72 per share) — — — — — — — ( 252,862 ) — ( 252,862 ) — ( 252,862 ) Net income — — — — — — — 273,138 — 273,138 36,887 310,025 Total other comprehensive loss — — — — — — — — ( 482 ) ( 482 ) ( 82 ) ( 564 ) Balances at December 31, 2022 352,881,826 $ 3,529 635,075 $ 6 9,200,000 $ 92 $ 6,931,819 $ ( 440,791 ) $ 1,332 $ 6,495,987 $ 678,671 $ 7,174,658 The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements. F-9 American Homes 4 Rent Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows (Amounts in thousands) For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Operating activities Net income $ 310,025 $ 210,559 $ 154,829 Adjustments to reconcile net income to net cash provided by operating activities: Depreciation and amortization 426,531 372,848 343,153 Noncash amortization of deferred financing costs, debt discounts and cash flow hedging instruments 11,673 8,790 7,431 Noncash share-based compensation 27,308 17,792 9,834 Equity in net (income) losses of unconsolidated joint ventures ( 3,066 ) ( 1,610 ) 774 Return on investment from unconsolidated joint ventures 5,711 — — Gain on sale and impairment of single-family properties and other, net ( 136,459 ) ( 49,696 ) ( 38,773 ) Other changes in operating assets and liabilities: Rent and other receivables ( 8,146 ) ( 4,885 ) ( 15,633 ) Prepaid expenses and other assets ( 7,144 ) 465 2,652 Deferred leasing costs ( 2,586 ) ( 3,422 ) ( 4,070 ) Accounts payable and accrued expenses 43,615 44,512 14,193 Amounts due from related parties ( 1,944 ) ( 153 ) ( 290 ) Net cash provided by operating activities 665,518 595,200 474,100 Investing activities Cash paid for single-family properties ( 595,171 ) ( 850,071 ) ( 269,273 ) Change in escrow deposits for purchase of single-family properties 20,431 ( 33,005 ) ( 374 ) Net proceeds received from sales of single-family properties and other 292,509 132,072 228,566 Proceeds received from storm-related insurance claims 1,981 4,842 3,705 Proceeds from notes receivable related to the sale of properties 34,090 1,253 — Investment in unconsolidated joint ventures ( 25,313 ) ( 29,260 ) ( 29,834 ) Distributions from joint ventures 68,310 57,550 129,007 Renovations to single-family properties ( 98,019 ) ( 47,681 ) ( 16,968 ) Recurring and other capital expenditures for single-family properties ( 138,779 ) ( 122,551 ) ( 104,819 ) Cash paid for development activity ( 921,423 ) ( 824,247 ) ( 564,241 ) Cash paid for deposits on land option contracts ( 14,548 ) — — Other investing activities ( 49,570 ) ( 22,367 ) ( 18,694 ) Net cash used for investing activities ( 1,425,502 ) ( 1,733,465 ) ( 642,925 ) Financing activities Proceeds from issuance of Class A common shares 561,472 728,810 414,100 Payments of Class A common share issuance costs ( 200 ) ( 200 ) ( 600 ) Redemption of perpetual preferred shares ( 155,000 ) ( 498,750 ) — Proceeds from issuances under share-based compensation plans 4,935 4,225 7,011 Payments related to tax withholding for share-based compensation ( 4,812 ) ( 2,682 ) ( 1,651 ) Payments on asset-backed securitizations ( 22,583 ) ( 24,311 ) ( 22,501 ) Proceeds from revolving credit facility 620,000 1,410,000 130,000 Payments on revolving credit facility ( 840,000 ) ( 1,060,000 ) ( 130,000 ) Proceeds from unsecured senior notes, net of discount 876,813 737,195 — Settlement of cash flow hedging instrument — ( 3,999 ) — Proceeds from liabilities related to consolidated land not owned 60,217 — — Distributions to noncontrolling interests ( 36,853 ) ( 23,170 ) ( 10,381 ) Distributions to common shareholders ( 252,506 ) ( 146,243 ) ( 61,067 ) Distributions to preferred shareholders ( 17,081 ) ( 37,923 ) ( 55,128 ) Deferred financing costs paid ( 8,225 ) ( 17,997 ) — Net cash provided by financing activities 786,177 1,064,955 269,783 Net increase (decrease) in cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash 26,193 ( 73,310 ) 100,958 Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash, beginning of period (see Note 2) 191,767 265,077 164,119 Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash, end of period (see Note 2) $ 217,960 $ 191,767 $ 265,077 F-10 American Homes 4 Rent Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows (continued) (Amounts in thousands) For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Supplemental cash flow information Cash payments for interest, net of amounts capitalized $ ( 116,404 ) $ ( 95,790 ) $ ( 109,679 ) Supplemental schedule of noncash investing and financing activities Accrued property renovations and development expenditures $ 71,069 $ 45,392 $ 36,544 Transfers of completed homebuilding deliveries to properties 502,207 395,937 322,024 Property and land contributions to unconsolidated joint ventures ( 35,843 ) ( 57,203 ) ( 132,439 ) Property and land distributions from unconsolidated joint ventures 8,397 — — Noncash right-of-use assets obtained in exchange for operating lease liabilities 5,059 1,346 17,105 Accrued distributions to affiliates 404 — 4,834 Accrued distributions to non-affiliates 106 — 13,612 The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements. F-11 American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Consolidated Balance Sheets (Amounts in thousands, except unit data) December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 Assets Single-family properties: Land $ 2,197,233 $ 2,062,039 Buildings and improvements 10,127,891 9,258,387 Single-family properties in operation 12,325,124 11,320,426 Less: accumulated depreciation ( 2,386,452 ) ( 2,072,933 ) Single-family properties in operation, net 9,938,672 9,247,493 Single-family properties under development and development land 1,187,221 882,159 Single-family properties held for sale, net 198,716 114,907 Total real estate assets, net 11,324,609 10,244,559 Cash and cash equivalents 69,155 48,198 Restricted cash 148,805 143,569 Rent and other receivables 47,752 41,587 Escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets 331,446 216,625 Investments in unconsolidated joint ventures 107,347 121,950 Amounts due from affiliates 25,666 25,666 Goodwill 120,279 120,279 Total assets $ 12,175,059 $ 10,962,433 Liabilities Revolving credit facility $ 130,000 $ 350,000 Asset-backed securitizations, net 1,890,842 1,908,346 Unsecured senior notes, net 2,495,156 1,622,132 Accounts payable and accrued expenses 484,403 343,526 Total liabilities 5,000,401 4,224,004 Commitments and contingencies (see Note 14) Capital Partners' capital: General partner: Common units ( 353,516,901 and 337,997,791 units issued and outstanding at December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively) 6,272,815 5,686,193 Preferred units ( 9,200,000 and 15,400,000 units issued and outstanding at December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively) 221,840 371,564 Limited partner: Common units ( 51,376,980 units issued and outstanding at December 31, 2022 and 2021) 678,477 678,582 Accumulated other comprehensive income 1,526 2,090 Total capital 7,174,658 6,738,429 Total liabilities and capital $ 12,175,059 $ 10,962,433 The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements. F-12 American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Consolidated Statements of Operations (Amounts in thousands, except unit and per unit data) For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Rents and other single-family property revenues $ 1,490,534 $ 1,303,882 $ 1,172,514 Expenses: Property operating expenses 552,091 490,205 450,267 Property management expenses 112,698 96,865 89,892 General and administrative expense 68,057 56,444 48,517 Interest expense 134,871 114,893 117,038 Acquisition and other transaction costs 23,452 15,749 9,298 Depreciation and amortization 426,531 372,848 343,153 Hurricane-related charges, net 6,133 — — Total expenses 1,323,833 1,147,004 1,058,165 Gain on sale and impairment of single-family properties and other, net 136,459 49,696 38,773 Other income and expense, net 6,865 3,985 1,707 Net income 310,025 210,559 154,829 Preferred distributions 17,081 37,923 55,128 Redemption of perpetual preferred units 5,276 15,879 — Net income attributable to common unitholders $ 287,668 $ 156,757 $ 99,701 Weighted-average common units outstanding: Basic 400,667,828 375,693,107 358,603,291 Diluted 401,164,072 376,966,230 359,064,841 Net income attributable to common unitholders per unit: Basic $ 0.72 $ 0.42 $ 0.28 Diluted $ 0.71 $ 0.41 $ 0.28 The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements. F-13 American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Amounts in thousands) For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Net income $ 310,025 $ 210,559 $ 154,829 Other comprehensive loss: Cash flow hedging instruments: Loss on settlement of cash flow hedging instrument — ( 3,999 ) — Reclassification adjustment for amortization of interest expense included in net income ( 564 ) ( 771 ) ( 963 ) Other comprehensive loss ( 564 ) ( 4,770 ) ( 963 ) Comprehensive income 309,461 205,789 153,866 Preferred distributions 17,081 37,923 55,128 Redemption of perpetual preferred units 5,276 15,879 — Comprehensive income attributable to common unitholders $ 287,104 $ 151,987 $ 98,738 The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements. F-14 American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Consolidated Statements of Capital (Amounts in thousands, except unit and per unit data) General Partner Limited Partners Common capital Preferred capital amount Common capital Accumulated other comprehensive income Total capital Number of units Amount Number of units Amount Balances at December 31, 2019 300,742,674 $ 4,474,333 $ 854,435 52,026,980 $ 682,199 $ 7,823 $ 6,018,790 Share-based compensation — 9,834 — — — — 9,834 Common units issued under share-based compensation plans, net of units withheld for employee taxes 577,656 5,360 — — — — 5,360 Issuance of Class A common units, net of offering costs of $ 600 15,036,130 413,500 — — — — 413,500 Redemptions of Class A units 300,000 3,946 — ( 300,000 ) ( 3,946 ) — — Distributions to capital holders: Preferred units (Note 9) — — ( 55,128 ) — — — ( 55,128 ) Common units ($ 0.20 per unit) — ( 61,906 ) — — ( 10,392 ) — ( 72,298 ) Cumulative effect of adoption of ASU 2016-13 — ( 1,494 ) — — — — ( 1,494 ) Net income — 85,246 55,128 — 14,455 — 154,829 Total other comprehensive loss — — — — — ( 963 ) ( 963 ) Balances at December 31, 2020 316,656,460 $ 4,928,819 $ 854,435 51,726,980 $ 682,316 $ 6,860 $ 6,472,430 Share-based compensation — 17,792 — — — — 17,792 Common units issued under share-based compensation plans, net of units withheld for employee taxes 497,045 1,543 — — — — 1,543 Issuance of Class A common units, net of offering costs of $ 200 20,494,286 728,610 — — — — 728,610 Redemptions of Class A units 350,000 4,617 — ( 350,000 ) ( 4,617 ) — — Redemption of Series D perpetual preferred units — ( 8,509 ) ( 260,241 ) — — — ( 268,750 ) Redemption of Series E perpetual preferred units — ( 7,370 ) ( 222,630 ) — — — ( 230,000 ) Distributions to capital holders: Preferred units (Note 9) — — ( 37,923 ) — — — ( 37,923 ) Common units ($ 0.40 per unit) — ( 130,478 ) — — ( 20,584 ) — ( 151,062 ) Net income — 151,169 37,923 — 21,467 — 210,559 Total other comprehensive loss — — — — — ( 4,770 ) ( 4,770 ) Balances at December 31, 2021 337,997,791 $ 5,686,193 $ 371,564 51,376,980 $ 678,582 $ 2,090 $ 6,738,429 F-15 American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Consolidated Statements of Capital (continued) (Amounts in thousands, except unit and per unit data) General Partner Limited Partners Common capital Preferred capital amount Common capital Accumulated other comprehensive income Total capital Number of units Amount Number of units Amount Balances at December 31, 2021 337,997,791 $ 5,686,193 $ 371,564 51,376,980 $ 678,582 $ 2,090 $ 6,738,429 Share-based compensation — 27,308 — — — — 27,308 Common units issued under share-based compensation plans, net of units withheld for employee taxes 519,110 123 — — — — 123 Issuance of Class A common units, net of offering costs of $ 200 15,000,000 561,272 — — — — 561,272 Redemption of Series F perpetual preferred units — ( 5,276 ) ( 149,724 ) — — — ( 155,000 ) Distributions to capital holders: Preferred units (Note 9) — — ( 17,081 ) — — — ( 17,081 ) Common units ($ 0.72 per unit) — ( 252,862 ) — — ( 36,992 ) — ( 289,854 ) Net income — 256,057 17,081 — 36,887 — 310,025 Total other comprehensive loss — — — — — ( 564 ) ( 564 ) Balances at December 31, 2022 353,516,901 $ 6,272,815 $ 221,840 51,376,980 $ 678,477 $ 1,526 $ 7,174,658 The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements. F-16 American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows (Amounts in thousands) For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Operating activities Net income $ 310,025 $ 210,559 $ 154,829 Adjustments to reconcile net income to net cash provided by operating activities: Depreciation and amortization 426,531 372,848 343,153 Noncash amortization of deferred financing costs, debt discounts and cash flow hedging instruments 11,673 8,790 7,431 Noncash share-based compensation 27,308 17,792 9,834 Equity in net (income) losses of unconsolidated joint ventures ( 3,066 ) ( 1,610 ) 774 Return on investment from unconsolidated joint ventures 5,711 — — Gain on sale and impairment of single-family properties and other, net ( 136,459 ) ( 49,696 ) ( 38,773 ) Other changes in operating assets and liabilities: Rent and other receivables ( 8,146 ) ( 4,885 ) ( 15,633 ) Prepaid expenses and other assets ( 7,144 ) 465 2,652 Deferred leasing costs ( 2,586 ) ( 3,422 ) ( 4,070 ) Accounts payable and accrued expenses 43,615 44,512 14,193 Amounts due from related parties ( 1,944 ) ( 153 ) ( 290 ) Net cash provided by operating activities 665,518 595,200 474,100 Investing activities Cash paid for single-family properties ( 595,171 ) ( 850,071 ) ( 269,273 ) Change in escrow deposits for purchase of single-family properties 20,431 ( 33,005 ) ( 374 ) Net proceeds received from sales of single-family properties and other 292,509 132,072 228,566 Proceeds received from storm-related insurance claims 1,981 4,842 3,705 Proceeds from notes receivable related to the sale of properties 34,090 1,253 — Investment in unconsolidated joint ventures ( 25,313 ) ( 29,260 ) ( 29,834 ) Distributions from joint ventures 68,310 57,550 129,007 Renovations to single-family properties ( 98,019 ) ( 47,681 ) ( 16,968 ) Recurring and other capital expenditures for single-family properties ( 138,779 ) ( 122,551 ) ( 104,819 ) Cash paid for development activity ( 921,423 ) ( 824,247 ) ( 564,241 ) Cash paid for deposits on land option contracts ( 14,548 ) — — Other investing activities ( 49,570 ) ( 22,367 ) ( 18,694 ) Net cash used for investing activities ( 1,425,502 ) ( 1,733,465 ) ( 642,925 ) Financing activities Proceeds from issuance of Class A common units 561,472 728,810 414,100 Payments of Class A common unit issuance costs ( 200 ) ( 200 ) ( 600 ) Redemption of perpetual preferred units ( 155,000 ) ( 498,750 ) — Proceeds from issuances under share-based compensation plans 4,935 4,225 7,011 Payments related to tax withholding for share-based compensation ( 4,812 ) ( 2,682 ) ( 1,651 ) Payments on asset-backed securitizations ( 22,583 ) ( 24,311 ) ( 22,501 ) Proceeds from revolving credit facility 620,000 1,410,000 130,000 Payments on revolving credit facility ( 840,000 ) ( 1,060,000 ) ( 130,000 ) Proceeds from unsecured senior notes, net of discount 876,813 737,195 — Settlement of cash flow hedging instrument — ( 3,999 ) — Proceeds from liabilities related to consolidated land not owned 60,217 — — Distributions to common unitholders ( 289,359 ) ( 169,413 ) ( 71,448 ) Distributions to preferred unitholders ( 17,081 ) ( 37,923 ) ( 55,128 ) Deferred financing costs paid ( 8,225 ) ( 17,997 ) — Net cash provided by financing activities 786,177 1,064,955 269,783 Net increase (decrease) in cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash 26,193 ( 73,310 ) 100,958 Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash, beginning of period (see Note 2) 191,767 265,077 164,119 Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash, end of period (see Note 2) $ 217,960 $ 191,767 $ 265,077 F-17 American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows (continued) (Amounts in thousands) For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Supplemental cash flow information Cash payments for interest, net of amounts capitalized $ ( 116,404 ) $ ( 95,790 ) $ ( 109,679 ) Supplemental schedule of noncash investing and financing activities Accrued property renovations and development expenditures $ 71,069 $ 45,392 $ 36,544 Transfers of completed homebuilding deliveries to properties 502,207 395,937 322,024 Property and land contributions to unconsolidated joint ventures ( 35,843 ) ( 57,203 ) ( 132,439 ) Property and land distributions from unconsolidated joint ventures 8,397 — — Noncash right-of-use assets obtained in exchange for operating lease liabilities 5,059 1,346 17,105 Accrued distributions to affiliates 404 — 4,834 Accrued distributions to non-affiliates 106 — 13,612 The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements. F-18 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements Note 1. Organization and Operations American Homes 4 Rent (“AMH” or the “General Partner”) is a Maryland real estate investment trust (“REIT”) formed on October 19, 2012 for the purpose of acquiring, developing, renovating, leasing and managing single-family homes as rental properties. American Homes 4 Rent, L.P., a Delaware limited partnership formed on October 22, 2012, and its consolidated subsidiaries (collectively, the “Operating Partnership” or the “OP”) is the entity through which the Company conducts substantially all of its business and owns, directly or through subsidiaries, substantially all of its assets. References to the “Company,” “we,” “our” and “us” mean collectively AMH, the Operating Partnership and those entities/subsidiaries owned or controlled by AMH and/or the Operating Partnership. As of December 31, 2022, the Company held 58,993 single-family properties in 21 states, including 1,115 properties classified as held for sale. AMH is the general partner of, and as of December 31, 2022 owned approximately 87.3 % of the common partnership interest in, the Operating Partnership. The remaining 12.7 % of the common partnership interest was owned by limited partners. As the sole general partner of the Operating Partnership, AMH has exclusive control of the Operating Partnership’s day-to-day management. The Company’s management operates AMH and the Operating Partnership as one business, and the management of AMH consists of the same members as the management of the Operating Partnership. AMH’s primary function is acting as the general partner of the Operating Partnership. The only material asset of AMH is its partnership interest in the Operating Partnership. As a result, AMH generally does not conduct business itself, other than acting as the sole general partner of the Operating Partnership, issuing equity from time to time and guaranteeing certain debt of the Operating Partnership. AMH itself is not directly obligated under any indebtedness, but guarantees some of the debt of the Operating Partnership. The Operating Partnership owns substantially all of the assets of the Company, including the Company’s ownership interests in its joint ventures, either directly or through its subsidiaries, conducts the operations of the Company’s business and is structured as a limited partnership with no publicly traded equity. One difference between the Company and the Operating Partnership is $ 25.7 million of asset-backed securitization certificates issued by the Operating Partnership and purchased by AMH. The asset-backed securitization certificates are recorded as an asset-backed securitization certificates receivable by the Company and as an amount due from affiliates by the Operating Partnership. AMH contributes all net proceeds from its various equity offerings to the Operating Partnership. In return for those contributions, AMH receives Operating Partnership units (“OP units”) equal to the number of shares it has issued in the equity offering. Based on the terms of the Agreement of Limited Partnership of the Operating Partnership, as amended, OP units can be exchanged for shares on a one-for-one basis. Except for net proceeds from equity issuances by AMH, the Operating Partnership generates the capital required by the Company’s business through the Operating Partnership’s operations, by the Operating Partnership’s incurrence of indebtedness or through the issuance of OP units. Note 2. Significant Accounting Policies Basis of Presentation The accompanying consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (“GAAP”) and in conjunction with the rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”). Any references in this report to the number of properties is outside the scope of our independent registered public accounting firm’s audit of our financial statements, in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board. In the opinion of management, all adjustments of a normal and recurring nature necessary for a fair presentation of the consolidated financial statements have been made. Principles of Consolidation The consolidated financial statements present the accounts of both (i) the Company, which include AMH, the Operating Partnership and their consolidated subsidiaries, and (ii) the Operating Partnership, which include the Operating Partnership and its consolidated subsidiaries. Intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated. The Company consolidates real estate partnerships and other entities that are not variable interest entities (“VIEs”) in accordance with Accounting Standards Codification (“ASC”) 810, Consolidation (“ASC 810”), when it owns, directly or indirectly, a majority interest in the entity or is otherwise able to control the entity. Entities that are not VIEs and for which the Company owns an interest but does not consolidate are accounted for under the equity method of accounting as an investment in an unconsolidated entity and are included F-19 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements in investments in unconsolidated joint ventures within the consolidated balance sheets. See Investments in Unconsolidated Joint Ventures below for a further discussion of the investments in unconsolidated joint ventures. The Company consolidates VIEs in accordance with ASC 810 if it is the primary beneficiary of the VIE as determined by its power to direct the VIE’s activities and the obligation to absorb its losses or the right to receive its benefits, which are potentially significant to the VIE. The Company holds investments in venture capital funds and deposits with land banking entities, which were determined to be VIEs. As the Company does not control the activities that most significantly impact the economic performance of these entities, the Company was deemed not to be the primary beneficiary and therefore did not consolidate the entities. The investments in the unconsolidated venture capital funds are accounted for under the equity method of accounting and included in escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets within the consolidated balance sheets. As of December 31, 2022, the carrying value of the investments in these venture capital funds was $ 12.0 million and the Company’s maximum exposure to loss was $ 16.1 million, which includes all future capital funding requirements. See Land Option Contracts below for a further discussion of the deposits with land banking entities. Use of Estimates The preparation of consolidated financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the consolidated financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ from those estimates. Income Taxes AMH has elected to be taxed as a REIT for U.S. federal income tax purposes under Sections 856 to 860 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the “Code”), commencing with our taxable year ended December 31, 2012. We believe that we have operated, and continue to operate, in such a manner as to satisfy the requirements for qualification as a REIT. Provided that we qualify as a REIT and our distributions to our shareholders equal or exceed our REIT taxable income (determined without regard to the deduction for dividends paid and including any net capital gains), we generally will not be subject to U.S. federal income tax. Qualification and taxation as a REIT depend upon our ability to meet the various qualification tests imposed under the Code, including tests related to the percentage of income that we earn from specified sources and the percentage of our earnings that we distribute to our shareholders. Accordingly, no assurance can be given that we will continue to be organized or be able to operate in a manner so as to remain qualified as a REIT. If we fail to qualify as a REIT in any taxable year and do not qualify for certain statutory relief provisions, we would be subject to U.S. federal income tax and state income tax on our taxable income at regular corporate tax rates, and we would likely be precluded from qualifying for treatment as a REIT until the fifth calendar year following the year in which we fail to qualify. Even if we qualify as a REIT, we may be subject to certain state or local income and capital taxes and U.S. federal income and excise taxes on our undistributed REIT taxable income, if any. Certain of our subsidiaries are subject to taxation by U.S. federal, state and local authorities for the periods presented. We made joint elections to treat certain subsidiaries as taxable REIT subsidiaries which are subject to U.S. federal, state and local taxes on their income at regular corporate rates. The tax years from 2017 to present generally remain open to examination by the taxing jurisdictions to which the Company is subject. We believe that our Operating Partnership is properly treated as a partnership for U.S. federal income tax purposes. As a partnership, the Operating Partnership is not subject to U.S. federal income tax on our income. Instead, each of the Operating Partnership’s partners, including AMH, is allocated, and may be required to pay tax with respect to, its share of the Operating Partnership’s income. As such, no provision for U.S. federal income taxes has been included for the Operating Partnership. ASC 740-10, Income Taxes, requires recognition of deferred tax assets for the expected future tax consequences of events that have been included in the financial statements or tax returns. Under this method, deferred tax assets and liabilities are determined based on the differences between the financial reporting and tax bases of assets and liabilities using enacted tax rates in effect for the year in which the differences are expected to reverse. We recognize tax benefits of uncertain tax positions only if it is more likely than not that the tax position will be sustained, based solely on its technical merits, with the taxing authority having full knowledge of all relevant information. The measurement of a tax benefit for an uncertain tax position that meets the more likely than not threshold is based on a cumulative probability model under which the largest amount of tax benefit recognized is the amount with a greater than 50% F-20 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements likelihood of being realized upon ultimate settlement with the taxing authority having full knowledge of all the relevant information. As of December 31, 2022, there were no deferred tax assets and liabilities or unrecognized tax benefits recorded by the Company. We do not anticipate a significant change in unrecognized tax benefits within the next 12 months. As a REIT, we generally are required to distribute annually to our shareholders at least 90 % of our REIT taxable income (determined without regard to the deduction for dividends paid and any net capital gains) and to pay tax at regular corporate rates to the extent that we annually distribute less than 100 % of our REIT taxable income (determined without regard to the deduction for dividends paid and including any net capital gains). The Operating Partnership funds the payment of distributions. AMH had a net operating loss (“NOL”) for U.S. federal income tax purposes of an estimated $ 11.8 million as of December 31, 2022 and $ 25.4 million as of December 31, 2021. We intend to use our NOL (to the extent available) to reduce our REIT taxable income to the extent that REIT taxable income is not reduced by our deduction for dividends paid. Investments in Real Estate Purchases of single-family properties are treated as asset acquisitions and, as such, are recorded at their purchase price, including acquisition costs, which is allocated to land and building based upon their relative fair values at the date of acquisition. Fair value is determined in accordance with ASC 820, Fair Value Measurements and Disclosures , and is primarily based on unobservable data inputs. In making estimates of fair values for purposes of allocating the purchase price of individually acquired properties subject to an existing lease, the Company utilizes its own market knowledge obtained from historical transactions, its internal construction program (the “AMH Development Program”) and published market data. In this regard, the Company also utilizes information obtained from county tax assessment records to assist in the determination of the fair value of the land and building. Typically, we allocate between 10 % to 30 % of the purchase price of properties to land. For the year ended December 31, 2022, the Company purchased 1,605 single-family properties treated as asset acquisitions for accounting purposes for a total purchase price of $ 571.8 million, net of holding costs, which was included in cash paid for single-family properties within the consolidated statement of cash flows. The nature of our business requires that in certain circumstances we acquire single-family properties subject to existing liens. Liens that we expect to be extinguished in cash are estimated and accrued for on the date of acquisition and recorded as a cost of the property. We incur costs to prepare properties acquired through our traditional acquisition channels for rental. These costs, along with related holding costs, are capitalized to the cost of the property during the period the property is undergoing activities to prepare it for its intended use. We capitalize interest costs as a cost of the property only during the period for which activities necessary to prepare an asset for its intended use are ongoing, provided that expenditures for the asset have been made and interest costs have been incurred. Upon completion of the renovation of our properties, all costs of operations, including repairs and maintenance, are expensed as incurred. Single-Family Properties Under Development and Development Land Land and construction in progress for our AMH Development Program are presented separately in single-family properties under development and development land within the consolidated balance sheets. Our capitalization policy on development properties follows the guidance in ASC 835-20, Capitalization of Interest , and ASC 970, Real Estate-General . Costs directly related to the development of properties are capitalized and the costs of land and buildings under development include specifically identifiable costs. We also capitalize interest, real estate taxes, insurance, utilities, and payroll costs for land and construction in progress under active development once the applicable GAAP criteria have been met. Single-family Properties Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations Single-family properties and land lots are classified as held for sale when they meet the applicable GAAP criteria in accordance with ASC 360-10, Property, Plant, and Equipment—Overall , including, but not limited to, the availability of the home for immediate sale in its present condition, the existence of an active program to locate a buyer and the probable sale of the home within one year. Single-family properties and land lots are classified as held for sale are reported at the lower of their carrying value or estimated fair value less costs to sell, and are presented separately in single-family properties held for sale, net within the consolidated balance sheets. As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, the Company had 1,115 and 659 single-family properties, respectively, classified as held for sale, and recorded $ 2.5 million, $ 0.2 million and $ 2.0 million of impairment on single-family properties held for sale for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively, which is included in gain on sale and impairment of single-family properties and F-21 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements other, net within the consolidated statements of operations. The results of operations of properties that have either been sold or classified as held for sale, if due to a strategic shift that has (or will have) a major effect on our operations or financial results, are reported in the consolidated statements of operations as discontinued operations for both current and prior periods presented through the date of the applicable disposition in accordance with ASC 205-20, Presentation of Financial Statements—Discontinued Operations . During the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, none of the properties classified as held for sale met the criteria to be reported as a discontinued operation. Impairment of Long-lived Assets We evaluate our long-lived assets for impairment periodically or whenever events or circumstances indicate that their carrying amount may not be recoverable. Significant indicators of impairment may include, but are not limited to, declines in home values, rental rates and occupancy percentages, as well as significant changes in the economy. If an impairment indicator exists, we compare the expected future undiscounted cash flows against the net carrying amount. If the sum of the estimated undiscounted cash flows is less than the net carrying amount, we record an impairment loss for the difference between the estimated fair value of the individual property and the carrying amount of the property at that date. No significant impairments on operating properties were recorded during the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020. Land Option Contracts We enter into land option contracts to acquire the right to purchase land for our AMH Development Program. Under these contracts, we typically make a specified option payment or deposit in consideration for the right to purchase land in the future, usually at a predetermined price. We analyze these land option contracts under the variable interest model to determine whether the land seller is a VIE and, if so, whether we are the primary beneficiary. Although the Company does not have legal title to the underlying land, we may be required to consolidate the related VIE if we are deemed to be the primary beneficiary. Deposits with land banking entities determined to be VIEs but not consolidated because we are not the primary beneficiary are at held at cost and included in escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets within the consolidated balance sheets. As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, the carrying value of these deposits and the Company’s maximum exposure to loss was $ 14.5 million and zero , respectively. We also consider whether the land option contracts should be accounted for as financing arrangements when the land banking entity is not consolidated under the variable interest model, as may be required if the land banking entity or other third-party acquires specific land parcels directly from us, on our behalf or at our direction or where we make improvements to the underlying land during the option period. During the year ended December 31, 2022, the Company entered into land option agreements whereby it sold land to a third party with an option to repurchase finished lots on a predetermined schedule. Because of our options to repurchase the finished lots, in accordance with ASC 606-10-55-70, we accounted for these transactions as financing arrangements rather than a sale. Consolidated land not owned is included in escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets and the liability for consolidated land not owned, which represents proceeds received from the third party net of our deposits on the optioned land, is included in accounts payable and accrued expenses in the consolidated balance sheets (see Note 5. Escrow Deposits, Prepaid Expenses and Other Assets and Note 8. Accounts Payable and Accrued Expenses). Commercial Office Leases We lease commercial office space from third parties for use in our corporate and property management operations. Commercial office leases are accounted for as operating leases in accordance with ASC 842, Leases , which requires us to recognize right-of-use assets and lease liabilities within the consolidated balance sheets for the rights and obligations created from these leases. Operating lease right-of-use assets and lease liabilities are recognized based on the present value of future minimum lease payments over the expected lease term at commencement date. As the implicit rate is generally not determinable, the right-of-use assets and lease liabilities are measured using our incremental borrowing rate based on the estimated rate of interest for collateralized borrowing over a similar term of the lease payments at commencement date. The expected lease terms include options to extend or terminate the lease when it is reasonably certain that we will exercise such options. Lease expense for operating leases is recognized on a straight-line basis over the expected lease term in general and administrative expense within the consolidated statements of operations. We elected the short-term lease measurement and recognition exemption and do not establish right-of-use assets or lease liabilities for operating leases with terms of twelve months or less. We also elected the practical expedient allowing us to avoid separating non-lease components from the associated lease component for our commercial office leases. The right-of-use assets and lease liabilities are F-22 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements presented in escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets and accounts payable and accrued expenses, respectively, within the consolidated balance sheets. Depreciation and Amortization Depreciation is computed on a straight-line basis over the estimated useful lives of buildings, improvements and other assets. Buildings are depreciated over 30 years and improvements and other assets are depreciated over their estimated economic useful lives, generally three to 30 years. Intangible Assets Finite-lived intangible assets are amortized on a straight-line basis over their estimated economic lives. The Company reviews finite-lived intangible assets for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of an asset may not be recoverable. If the sum of the estimated future cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of an asset is less than its net book value, an impairment loss is recognized. Measurement of an impairment loss is based on the fair value of an asset. No impairment was recorded during the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020. Goodwill Goodwill represents the fair value in excess of the tangible and separately identifiable intangible assets that were acquired in connection with the internalization of the Company’s management function in June 2013, including all administrative, financial, property management, marketing and leasing personnel, including executive management. Goodwill has an indefinite life and is therefore not amortized. The Company analyzes goodwill for impairment on an annual basis pursuant to ASC 350, Intangibles—Goodwill and Other , which permits us to assess qualitative factors to determine whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than the carrying amount as a basis to determine whether an impairment test is necessary. This qualitative assessment requires judgment to be applied in evaluating the effects of multiple factors, including macroeconomic conditions, industry and market conditions, cost factors, overall financial performance, other relevant entity-specific events, events affecting the reporting unit, and whether or not there has been a sustained decrease in the Company’s stock price. We also have the option to bypass the qualitative assessment for any reporting unit in any period and proceed directly to performing the goodwill impairment test. The impairment test compares the fair value of the reporting unit with its carrying amount. If the carrying amount exceeds the fair value, the impairment loss is determined as the excess of the carrying amount of the goodwill reporting unit over the fair value of that goodwill, not to exceed the carrying amount. Impairment charges, if any, are recognized in operating results. Based on our assessment of qualitative factors on December 31, 2022, we concluded it was more likely than not that the Company’s recorded goodwill balance of $ 120.3 million was not impaired and did not perform the quantitative test. No goodwill impairment was recorded during the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020. Deferred Financing Costs Financing costs related to the origination of the Company’s debt instruments are deferred and amortized as interest expense under the effective interest method over the contractual term of the applicable financing. Financing costs related to the origination of the Company’s revolving credit facility are presented net of accumulated amortization and included in escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets within the consolidated balance sheets. Financing costs related to the origination of the Company’s unsecured senior notes and asset-backed securitizations are presented net of accumulated amortization and are netted against the related debt instrument under liabilities within the consolidated balance sheets. Cash, Cash Equivalents and Restricted Cash We consider all demand deposits, cashier’s checks, money market accounts and certificates of deposit with a maturity of three months or less to be cash equivalents. We maintain our cash and cash equivalents and escrow deposits at financial institutions. The combined account balances typically exceed the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation insurance coverage, and, as a result, there is a concentration of credit risk related to amounts on deposit. We believe that the risk is not significant. Restricted cash primarily consists of funds held related to resident security deposits, cash reserves in accordance with certain loan agreements and funds held in the custody of our transfer agent for the payment of distributions. Funds held related to resident security F-23 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements deposits are restricted during the term of the related lease agreement, which is generally one year. Cash reserved in connection with lender requirements is restricted during the term of the related debt instrument. The following table provides a reconciliation of cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash per the Company’s and the Operating Partnership’s consolidated statements of cash flows to the corresponding financial statement line items in the consolidated balance sheets (amounts in thousands): December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Cash and cash equivalents $ 69,155 $ 48,198 $ 137,060 Restricted cash 148,805 143,569 128,017 Total cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash $ 217,960 $ 191,767 $ 265,077 Escrow Deposits Escrow deposits include refundable and non-refundable cash earnest money deposits for the purchase of properties and deposits related to land option contracts (see Land Option Contracts above). In addition, escrow deposits include amounts paid for single-family properties in certain states which require a judicial order when the risks and rewards of ownership of the property are transferred and the purchase is finalized. Investments in Unconsolidated Joint Ventures Investments in unconsolidated joint ventures are recorded initially at cost, and subsequently adjusted for equity in earnings and cash contributions and distributions. Under the equity method of accounting, our net equity investment is included in investments in unconsolidated joint ventures within the consolidated balance sheets, and our share of net income or loss from the joint ventures is included within other income and expense, net in the consolidated statements of operations. Our recognition of joint venture income or loss is generally based on ownership percentages, which may change upon the achievement of certain investment return thresholds. The ultimate realization of the investment in unconsolidated joint ventures is dependent on a number of factors, including the performance of each investment and market conditions. We classify distributions received from our unconsolidated joint ventures using the “cumulative earnings” approach, under which distributions up to the amount of cumulative equity in earnings recognized will be classified as cash inflows from operating activities, and those in excess of that amount will be classified as cash inflows from investing activities in our consolidated statements of cash flows. Our investments in unconsolidated joint ventures are reviewed for impairment periodically and we will record an impairment charge when events or circumstances change indicating that a decline in the fair values below the carrying values has occurred and such decline is other-than-temporary. During the year ended December 31, 2020, the Company recognized a $ 4.9 million impairment charge, of which $ 3.5 million was recognized in gain on sale and impairment of single-family properties and other, net and $ 1.4 million was recognized in other income and expense, net within the consolidated statements of operations, associated with the liquidation of legacy joint ventures, which were acquired as part of the American Residential Properties, Inc. (“ARPI”) merger in February 2016. Notes Receivable, Net The Company obtained promissory notes in connection with two bulk dispositions of our single-family properties. The promissory note obtained during the second quarter of 2019 was paid in full during the year ended December 31, 2022 and the promissory note obtained during the first quarter of 2017 matured in the first quarter of 2022 and is still being actively collected. The promissory notes are secured by first priority mortgages on the disposed homes, contain certain covenants and require monthly or quarterly interest payments with the full principal due at maturity. Notes receivable are presented net of discounts in escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets within the consolidated balance sheets. Interest income from the notes, including amortization of discounts, is presented in other income and expense, net within the consolidated statements of operations. Upon adoption of Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”) 2016-13, Financial Instruments—Credit Losses (Topic 326): Measurement of Credit Losses on Financial Instruments , on January 1, 2020, we are required to estimate and recognize lifetime expected losses, rather than incurred losses, on these notes receivable, which results in the earlier recognition of credit losses even if the expected risk of credit loss is remote. Notes receivable are also presented net of the allowance for expected F-24 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements credit losses, which the Company estimates on a quarterly basis based on (i) credit quality indicators such as the borrower’s historical performance, including the borrower’s financial results and satisfaction of scheduled payments, (ii) current conditions, including macroeconomic conditions and other conditions affecting the borrower, and (iii) other reasonable and supportable forecasts about the future. As part of the monitoring process, we may meet with a borrower’s management to better understand such borrower’s financial performance and its future plans on an as-needed basis. A note receivable will be categorized as non-performing if a borrower experiences financial difficulty and has failed to make scheduled payments. Changes to the allowance for expected credit losses are recognized in other income and expense, net within the consolidated statements of operations. Revenue and Expense Recognition We lease single-family properties that we own directly to tenants who occupy the properties under operating leases, generally, with a term of one year . In accordance with ASC 842, Leases , the Company classifies our single-family property leases as operating leases and elects to not separate the lease component, comprised of rents from single-family properties, from the associated non-lease component, comprised of fees from single-family properties and tenant charge-backs. The combined component is accounted for under ASC 842, while certain tenant charge-backs are accounted for as variable payments under ASC 606, Revenue from Contracts with Customers . Rental revenue, net of any concessions, is recognized on a straight-line basis over the term of the lease, which is not materially different than if it were recorded when due from tenants and recognized monthly as it is earned. Tenant charge-backs, which are primarily related to cost recoveries on utilities, are recognized as revenue on a gross basis in the period during which the expenses are incurred. We accrue for property taxes and homeowners’ association (“HOA”) assessments based on amounts billed, and, in some circumstances, estimates and historical trends when bills or assessments are not available. The actual assessment may differ from the estimates, resulting in a change in estimate in a subsequent period. Gains or losses on sales of properties and upon contributions to our unconsolidated joint ventures are recognized pursuant to the provisions included in ASC 610-20, Other Income . Under ASC 610-20, we must first determine whether the transaction is a sale to a customer or non-customer. We typically sell properties on a selective basis and not within the ordinary course of our operating business and therefore expect that our sale transactions will not be contracts with customers. We next determine whether we have a controlling financial interest in the property after the sale, consistent with the consolidation model in ASC 810, Consolidation . If we determine that we do not have a controlling financial interest in the real estate, we evaluate whether a contract exists under ASC 606 and whether the buyer has obtained control of the asset that was sold. We recognize a full gain or loss on sale, which is presented in gain on sale and impairment of single-family properties and other, net within the consolidated statements of operations, when the derecognition criteria under ASC 610-20 have been met. Leasing Costs Our leasing costs are accounted for under the provisions of ASC 842, Leases. Direct costs incurred due to the execution of a lease are initially capitalized and then amortized over the term of the lease, which is generally one year . Accounts Payable and Accrued Expenses Accounts payable and accrued expenses consists primarily of trade payables, accrued interest, distribution payables, resident security deposits, prepaid rent, construction and maintenance liabilities, HOA fees, operating lease liabilities and property tax accruals as of the end of the respective period presented. It also consists of liabilities for consolidated land not owned (see Land Option Contracts above) and contingent loss accruals, if any, when such losses are both probable and estimable. When it is reasonably possible that a significant contingent loss has occurred, we disclose the nature of the potential loss and, if estimable, a range of exposure. Share-Based Compensation Our 2012 Equity Incentive Plan and 2021 Equity Incentive Plan (collectively, the “Plans”) are accounted for under the provisions of ASC 718, Compensation—Stock Compensation . Noncash share-based compensation costs related to options to purchase our Class A common shares, restricted share units (“RSUs”) and performance-based restricted share units (“PSUs”) issued to members of the Company’s board of trustees and employees is based on the fair value of the options, RSUs and PSUs on the grant date and generally amortized over the service period. At the time of grant, the Company takes into consideration the timing of the equity award and evaluates for conditions that could result in the award to be considered spring-loaded, in which case the fair value would be adjusted. F-25 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements During the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, the Company did not grant equity awards that would be considered spring-loaded. Forfeitures are recognized as they occur. The Plans allow for continued release of awards based on the original vesting schedule, rather than forfeiture, of unvested share-based grants upon termination of service for employees who meet certain retirement eligibility criteria, including age and years of service. Retirement eligible employees must also provide a notice of intent to retire at least six months prior to retirement date and the Human Capital and Compensation Committee (“HCC Committee”) must approve the continued release of awards. As a result of the six month notice requirement, compensation cost is recognized over six months from the grant date to the extent an employee is retirement eligible on the grant date and compensation cost is accelerated to the extent that an employee will become retirement eligible before six months prior to the end of the contractual life of their share-based grants. Fair Value of Financial Instruments The fair value of a financial instrument is the amount at which the instrument could be exchanged in an orderly transaction between two willing parties. Fair value is a market-based measurement, and should be determined based on the assumptions that market participants would use in pricing an asset or liability. The GAAP valuation hierarchy is based upon the transparency of inputs to the valuation of an asset or liability as of the measurement date. A financial instrument’s categorization within the valuation hierarchy is based upon the lowest level of input that is significant to the fair value measurement. The three levels are defined as follows: • Level 1 —Inputs to the valuation methodology are quoted prices for identical assets or liabilities in active markets; • Level 2 —Inputs to the valuation methodology include quoted prices for similar assets and liabilities in active markets, and inputs that are observable for the asset or liability, either directly or indirectly, for substantially the full term of the financial instrument; and • Level 3 —Inputs to the valuation methodology are unobservable and significant to the fair value measurement. See Note 12. Fair Value for our consideration of the fair value of our financial instruments. Derivatives From time to time, we may use interest rate cap agreements or other derivative instruments for interest rate risk management purposes. We assess these derivatives at inception and on an ongoing basis for the effectiveness of qualifying cash flow hedges. For derivative instruments that are designated and qualify as a cash flow hedge, the gain or loss on the derivative instrument is reported as a component of other comprehensive income and reclassified into earnings as interest expense during the period in which the hedged transaction affects earnings. Segment Reporting During the year ended December 31, 2022, the Company reassessed its operating segments as a result of changes in information presented to its chief operating decision maker (“CODM”). We operate in one operating segment with activities related to acquiring, renovating, developing, leasing and managing single-family homes as rental properties. ASC 280, Segment Reporting , requires the use of the “management approach” to align segment reporting with our internal reporting, and our CODM regularly reviews core funds from operations at the total portfolio level as the primary measure for assessing the Company’s performance and allocating resources. Property acquisition and disposition decisions are made at the individual property level and development decisions are made at the community level across a geographically diversified portfolio based on criteria consistent with our objective of generating attractive risk-adjusted returns for our shareholders. F-26 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements Note 3. Real Estate Assets, Net The net book values of real estate assets consisted of the following as of December 31, 2022 and 2021 (amounts in thousands): December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 Occupied single-family properties $ 9,419,098 $ 8,522,080 Single-family properties leased, not yet occupied 52,325 77,221 Single-family properties in turnover process 281,356 184,170 Single-family properties recently renovated or developed 182,336 126,379 Single-family properties newly acquired and under renovation 3,557 337,643 Single-family properties in operation, net 9,938,672 9,247,493 Development land 631,539 549,653 Single-family properties under development 555,682 332,506 Single-family properties held for sale, net 198,716 114,907 Total real estate assets, net $ 11,324,609 $ 10,244,559 Depreciation expense related to single-family properties was $ 410.4 million, $ 357.8 million and $ 330.2 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. Hurricane Ian impacted certain properties primarily located in Florida, South Carolina and North Carolina during the year ended December 31, 2022. The Company’s property and casualty insurance policies provide coverage for wind and flood damage, as well as business interruption costs, during the period of remediation and repairs, subject to deductibles and limits. During the year ended December 31, 2022, the Company recognized $ 8.9 million in gross charges primarily related to an estimated accrual for minor repair and remediation costs, partially offset by an estimated $ 2.8 million of related insurance claims that we believe is probable we will recover. The $ 6.1 million of net charges are included in hurricane-related charges, net within the consolidated statement of operations for year ended December 31, 2022. The following table summarizes the Company’s dispositions of single-family properties and land for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020 (amounts in thousands, except property data): For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Single-family properties: Properties sold 987 481 1,047 Net proceeds (1) $ 288,030 $ 130,825 $ 228,495 Net gain on sale $ 140,537 $ 50,543 $ 47,187 Land: Net proceeds $ 4,479 $ 1,247 $ 71 Net gain on sale $ 777 $ 136 $ 7 (1) Net proceeds are net of deductions for working capital prorations. Note 4. Rent and Other Receivables Included in rents and other single-family property revenues are variable lease payments for tenant charge-backs, which primarily relate to cost recoveries on utilities, and variable lease payments for fees from single-family properties. Variable lease payments for tenant charge-backs were $ 202.6 million, $ 178.3 million and $ 160.8 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. Variable lease payments for fees from single-family properties were $ 27.0 million, $ 22.6 million and $ 16.4 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. F-27 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements The Company generally rents its single-family properties under non-cancelable lease agreements with a term of one year . The following table summarizes future minimum rental revenues under existing leases on our properties as of December 31, 2022 (amounts in thousands): December 31, 2022 2023 $ 693,989 2024 37,521 2025 32 Total $ 731,542 Rent and other receivables included $ 5.0 million of insurance claims receivables related to Hurricane Ian and Winter Storm Elliott as of December 31, 2022 and $ 1.9 million of insurance claims receivables related to Winter Storm Uri as of December 31, 2021. The Company collected $ 2.0 million and $ 4.8 million in proceeds from storm-related insurance claims during the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively, and collected $ 4.0 million in proceeds from insurance claims related to legal recoveries and $ 3.7 million in proceeds from hurricane-related insurance claims during the year ended December 31, 2020. Note 5. Escrow Deposits, Prepaid Expenses and Other Assets The following table summarizes the components of escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets as of December 31, 2022 and 2021 (amounts in thousands): December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 Consolidated land not owned (see Note 2) $ 108,114 $ — Escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other 105,811 88,414 Commercial real estate, software, vehicles and FF&E, net 85,772 62,462 Operating lease right-of-use assets 19,129 17,269 Deferred costs and other intangibles, net 10,237 13,134 Notes receivable, net 2,383 35,346 Total $ 331,446 $ 216,625 Depreciation expense related to commercial real estate, software, vehicles and furniture, fixtures and equipment (“FF&E”), net was $ 13.4 million, $ 11.2 million and $ 8.9 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. Deferred Costs and Other Intangibles, Net Deferred costs and other intangibles, net, consisted of the following as of December 31, 2022 and 2021 (amounts in thousands): December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 Deferred leasing costs $ 2,375 $ 3,090 Deferred financing costs 22,491 22,491 24,866 25,581 Less: accumulated amortization ( 14,629 ) ( 12,447 ) Total $ 10,237 $ 13,134 Amortization expense related to deferred leasing costs was $ 2.7 million, $ 3.9 million and $ 4.1 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively, and is included in depreciation and amortization within the consolidated statements of operations. Amortization of deferred financing costs that relate to our revolving credit facility was $ 2.7 million, $ 2.5 million and $ 2.0 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively, and is included in gross interest, prior to interest capitalization (see Note 7. Debt). F-28 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements The following table sets forth the estimated annual amortization expense related to deferred costs and other intangibles, net as of December 31, 2022 for future periods (amounts in thousands): Deferred Leasing Costs Deferred Financing Costs Total 2023 $ 1,279 $ 2,722 $ 4,001 2024 — 2,730 2,730 2025 — 2,722 2,722 2026 — 784 784 Total $ 1,279 $ 8,958 $ 10,237 Note 6. Investments in Unconsolidated Joint Ventures As of December 31, 2022, the Company held 20 % ownership interests in three unconsolidated joint ventures. In evaluating the Company’s 20 % ownership interests in these joint ventures, we concluded that the joint ventures are not VIEs after applying the variable interest model and, therefore, we account for our interests in the joint ventures as investments in unconsolidated subsidiaries after applying the voting interest model using the equity method of accounting. Equity in net income (losses) of unconsolidated joint ventures is included in other income and expense, net within the consolidated statements of operations. During the second quarter of 2014, the Company entered into a joint venture with the Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation (the “Alaska JV”) to invest in homes acquired through traditional acquisition channels. During the third quarter of 2018, the Company entered into a joint venture with another leading institutional investor (the “Institutional Investor JV”) to invest in newly constructed single-family rental homes, which was subsequently amended and upsized to $ 312.5 million during the third quarter of 2019. The initial term of the joint venture with Institutional Investor JV is five years from the effective date of the amended agreement, during which neither member may unilaterally market properties for sale. During the first quarter of 2020, the Company entered into a $ 253.1 million strategic joint venture, which has an evergreen term, with institutional investors advised by J.P. Morgan Asset Management (the “J.P. Morgan JV”) focused on constructing and operating newly built rental homes, which was subsequently upsized to $ 625.0 million during the second quarter of 2020. Subsequent to December 31, 2022, the parties agreed to reinvest proceeds from debt financing obtained in the first quarter of 2022 (see below) to increase the size of the partnership up to approximately $ 900.0 million. The changes do not impact the accounting treatment of the joint venture. The following table summarizes our investments in unconsolidated joint ventures (amounts in thousands, except percentages and property data): Joint Venture Description % Ownership at December 31, 2022 Completed Homes at December 31, 2022 Balances at December 31, 2022 Balances at December 31, 2021 Alaska JV 20 % 259 $ 18,890 $ 22,658 Institutional Investor JV 20 % 967 16,567 28,695 J.P. Morgan JV 20 % 1,314 71,890 70,597 2,540 $ 107,347 $ 121,950 The Company provides various services to these joint ventures, which are considered to be related parties, including property management and development services and has opportunities to earn promoted interests. Management fee and development fee income from unconsolidated joint ventures was $ 13.9 million, $ 10.3 million and $ 5.8 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively, and is included in other income and expense, net within the consolidated statements of operations. As a result of the Company’s management of these joint ventures, certain related party receivables and payables arise in the ordinary course of business and are included in escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets or amounts payable to affiliates in the consolidated balance sheets. During the first quarter of 2022, the Company acquired 200 properties in a bulk transaction from the Institutional Investor JV for total consideration of $ 74.6 million, of which (i) $ 66.2 million was paid in cash and included in cash paid for single-family properties in the consolidated statements of cash flows and (ii) $ 8.4 million was recorded as a noncash distribution resulting in a reduction to our equity method investment. The transaction was accounted for as an asset acquisition and resulted in a gain on sale at the Institutional Investor F-29 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements JV. Recognition of our pro rata portion of the gain on sale has been deferred by reducing the carrying value of the acquired properties in our consolidated balance sheets. During the third quarter of 2020, the Institutional Investor JV entered into a loan agreement to borrow up to a $ 201.0 million aggregate commitment that bore interest at the London Inter-Bank Offered Rate (“LIBOR”) plus a 3.50 % margin. The Institutional Investor JV amended its loan agreement during the third quarter of 2022 to increase its borrowing capacity to $ 250.0 million. The amended loan bears interest at an adjusted Secured Overnight Financing Rate (“SOFR”) plus a 2.40 % margin during the during the initial two-year term and matures on July 1, 2024. The amended loan agreement provides for two one-year extension options that include additional fees and interest. As of December 31, 2022, the Institutional Investor JV’s loan had a $ 232.7 million outstanding principal balance. During the first quarter of 2022, the J.P. Morgan JV entered into a loan agreement to borrow up to a $ 375.0 million aggregate commitment. The loan bears interest at an adjusted SOFR plus a 1.50 % margin during the initial three-year term and matures on January 28, 2025. The loan agreement provides for one one-year extension option that includes additional fees and interest. As of December 31, 2022, the J.P. Morgan JV’s loan had a $ 260.3 million outstanding principal balance. The Company has provided customary non-recourse guarantees for the J.P. Morgan JV and Institutional Investor JV loans that may become a liability for us upon a voluntary bankruptcy filing by the joint venture or the occurrence of other actions such as fraud or a material misrepresentation by us or the joint venture. To date, the guarantees have not been invoked, and we believe that the actions that would trigger a guarantee would generally be disadvantageous to the joint ventures and us and therefore are unlikely to occur. However, there can be no assurances that actions that could trigger the guarantee will not occur. F-30 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements Note 7. Debt All of the Company’s indebtedness is debt of the Operating Partnership. AMH is not directly obligated under any indebtedness, but guarantees some of the debt of the Operating Partnership. The following table presents the Company’s debt as of December 31, 2022 and 2021 (amounts in thousands): Outstanding Principal Balance Interest Rate (1) Maturity Date December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 AMH 2014-SFR2 securitization 4.42 % October 9, 2024 $ 468,138 $ 473,594 AMH 2014-SFR3 securitization 4.40 % December 9, 2024 482,964 488,790 AMH 2015-SFR1 securitization (2) 4.14 % April 9, 2045 508,672 514,868 AMH 2015-SFR2 securitization (3) 4.36 % October 9, 2045 441,854 446,929 Total asset-backed securitizations 1,901,628 1,924,181 2028 unsecured senior notes (4) 4.08 % February 15, 2028 500,000 500,000 2029 unsecured senior notes 4.90 % February 15, 2029 400,000 400,000 2031 unsecured senior notes (5) 2.46 % July 15, 2031 450,000 450,000 2032 unsecured senior notes 3.63 % April 15, 2032 600,000 — 2051 unsecured senior notes 3.38 % July 15, 2051 300,000 300,000 2052 unsecured senior notes 4.30 % April 15, 2052 300,000 — Revolving credit facility (6) 5.29 % April 15, 2026 130,000 350,000 Total debt 4,581,628 3,924,181 Unamortized discounts on unsecured senior notes ( 36,099 ) ( 15,561 ) Deferred financing costs, net (7) ( 29,531 ) ( 28,142 ) Total debt per balance sheet $ 4,515,998 $ 3,880,478 (1) Interest rates are rounded and as of December 31, 2022. Unless otherwise stated, interest rates are fixed percentages. (2) The AMH 2015-SFR1 securitization has an anticipated repayment date of April 9, 2025. (3) The AMH 2015-SFR2 securitization has an anticipated repayment date of October 9, 2025. (4) The stated interest rate on the 2028 unsecured senior notes is 4.25 %, which was hedged to yield an interest rate of 4.08 %. (5) The stated interest rate on the 2031 unsecured senior notes is 2.38 %, which was hedged to yield an interest rate of 2.46 %. (6) The revolving credit facility provides for a borrowing capacity of up to $ 1.25 billion, and the Company had approximately $ 4.0 million and $ 1.6 million committed to outstanding letters of credit that reduced our borrowing capacity as of December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The revolving credit facility bears interest at LIBOR plus 0.90 % as of December 31, 2022. (7) Deferred financing costs relate to our asset-backed securitizations and unsecured senior notes. Amortization of deferred financing costs related to our asset-backed securitizations and unsecured senior notes was $ 6.8 million, $ 6.1 million and $ 5.9 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively, and is included in gross interest, prior to interest capitalization. Debt Maturities The following table summarizes the contractual maturities of the Company’s principal debt balances on a fully extended basis as of December 31, 2022 (amounts in thousands): Debt Maturities 2023 $ 20,714 2024 950,992 2025 10,302 2026 140,302 2027 10,302 Thereafter 3,449,016 Total debt $ 4,581,628 F-31 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements Encumbered Properties The following table displays the number of properties pledged as collateral for the Company’s asset-backed securitization loans and the aggregate net book values as of December 31, 2022 and 2021 (amounts in thousands, except property data): December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 Number of Properties Net Book Value Number of Properties Net Book Value AMH 2014-SFR2 securitization 4,530 $ 550,581 4,526 $ 559,257 AMH 2014-SFR3 securitization 4,563 598,189 4,570 605,420 AMH 2015-SFR1 securitization 4,691 596,236 4,690 606,385 AMH 2015-SFR2 securitization 4,168 554,608 4,168 562,443 Total encumbered properties 17,952 $ 2,299,614 17,954 $ 2,333,505 Asset-backed Securitizations The Company completed multiple asset-backed securitizations, all of which have certain general characteristics in common. The asset-backed securitization transactions resulted in newly-formed special purpose entities (the “Borrowers”), which entered into loans with third-party lenders. The Borrowers are each wholly owned by respective special purpose entities (the “Equity Owners”), which are wholly owned by the Operating Partnership. The loans were represented by promissory notes that were immediately transferred by the third-party lenders to subsidiaries of the Company and then to Real Estate Mortgage Investment Conduit (“REMIC”) trusts in exchange for single-family rental pass-through certificates representing the beneficial ownership interests in the respective loans and trusts. Upon receipt of the certificates, the subsidiaries sold the certificates to investors. The principal amount of each class of certificates corresponds to the corresponding principal amount of the loan components with an additional class to hold the residual REMIC interest. The loans require monthly payments of interest together with principal payments representing one-twelfth of one percent of the original principal amount of the loans. The loans are secured by first priority mortgages on pools of single-family residential properties transferred to the Borrowers from the Company’s portfolio of properties. The Borrowers’ homes were substantially similar to the other properties owned by the Company and were leased to tenants underwritten on substantially the same basis as the tenants in the Company’s other properties. During the duration of the loans, the Borrowers’ properties may not generally be transferred, sold or otherwise securitized and the Company can substitute properties if a property owned by the Borrowers becomes a disqualified property under the terms of the loan or voluntarily with properties eligible for substitution, in limited circumstances, subject to the terms, conditions and limitations provided in the loan agreements. The loans are also secured by a security interest in all of the Borrowers’ personal property and a pledge of all of the assets of the Equity Owners, including a security interest in their membership interests in the Borrowers. The Company provides a limited guaranty (i) for certain losses arising out of designated acts of intentional misconduct and (ii) for the principal amount of the loans and all other obligations under the loan agreements in the event of insolvency or bankruptcy proceedings. The Company accounted for the transfers of the notes from its subsidiaries to the trusts as sales under ASC 860, Transfers and Servicing , with no resulting gain or loss as the notes were both originated by the third-party lenders and immediately transferred at the same fair market value. The Company also evaluated and did not identify any variable interests in the trusts. Accordingly, the Company consolidates, at historical cost basis, the homes placed as collateral for the notes, and the principal balances outstanding on the notes are included in asset-backed securitizations, net within the consolidated balance sheets. The loan agreements provide that the Borrowers maintain covenants typical for securitization transactions including maintaining certain reserve accounts and a debt service coverage ratio of at least 1.20 to 1.00. The loan agreements define the debt service coverage ratio as of any determination date as a ratio in which the numerator is the net cash flow divided by the aggregate debt service for the 12-month period following the date of determination. AMH 2014-SFR2 Securitization The AMH 2014-SFR2 securitization completed during the third quarter of 2014 is a fixed-rate loan for $ 513.3 million with a 10 -year term maturing on October 9, 2024 and has a duration-adjusted weighted-average interest rate of 4.42 %. The loan was originally secured by first priority mortgages on a portfolio of 4,487 single-family residential properties. In addition to the single-family rental pass-through certificates sold to third parties, the Company acquired all of the Class F certificates, which bear no interest, for $ 25.7 F-32 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements million. The Company evaluated the purchased Class F certificates as a variable interest in the trust and concluded that the Class F certificates will not absorb a majority of the trust’s expected losses or receive a majority of the trust’s expected residual returns. The Company also concluded that the Class F certificates do not provide the Company with an ability to direct activities that could impact the trust’s economic performance. The Company does not consolidate the trust and the $ 25.7 million of purchased Class F certificates are reflected as asset-backed securitization certificates in the Company’s consolidated balance sheets and as amounts due from affiliates in the Operating Partnership’s consolidated balance sheets. Gross proceeds to the Company from the transaction, after purchase of the Class F certificates, were $ 487.7 million, before issuance costs of $ 12.9 million, and were used to pay down the outstanding balance on the credit facility and for general corporate purposes. AMH 2014-SFR3 Securitization The AMH 2014-SFR3 securitization completed during the fourth quarter of 2014 is a fixed-rate loan for $ 528.4 million with a 10 -year term maturing on December 9, 2024 and has a duration-adjusted weighted-average interest rate of 4.40 %. The loan was originally secured by first priority mortgages on a portfolio of 4,503 single-family residential properties owned by the Borrower. Gross proceeds from the transaction were $ 528.4 million, before issuance costs of $ 12.9 million, and were used to pay down the outstanding balance on the credit facility and for general corporate purposes. AMH 2015-SFR1 Securitization The AMH 2015-SFR1 securitization completed during the first quarter of 2015 is a fixed-rate loan for $ 552.8 million with a 30 -year term maturing on April 9, 2045 and has a duration-adjusted weighted-average interest rate of 4.14 %. The loan was originally secured by first priority mortgages on a pool of 4,661 single-family residential properties owned by the Borrower and has an anticipated repayment date of April 9, 2025. Gross proceeds from the transaction were $ 552.8 million, before issuance costs of $ 13.3 million, and were used to pay down the outstanding balance on the credit facility and for general corporate purposes. AMH 2015-SFR2 Securitization The AMH 2015-SFR2 securitization completed during the third quarter of 2015 is a fixed-rate loan for $ 477.7 million with a 30 -year term maturing on October 9, 2045 and has a duration-adjusted weighted-average interest rate of 4.36 %. The loan was originally secured by first priority mortgages on a portfolio of 4,125 single-family residential properties owned by the Borrower and has an anticipated repayment date of October 9, 2025. Gross proceeds from the transaction were $ 477.7 million, before issuance costs of $ 11.3 million, and were used to pay down the outstanding balance on the credit facility and for general corporate purposes. Unsecured Senior Notes During the second quarter of 2022, the Operating Partnership issued $ 600.0 million of 3.625 % unsecured senior notes with a maturity date of April 15, 2032 (the “2032 Notes”) and $ 300.0 million of 4.300 % unsecured senior notes with a maturity date of April 15, 2052 (the “2052 Notes” and, together with the 2032 Notes, the “2032 and 2052 Notes”). Interest on the 2032 and 2052 Notes is payable semi-annually in arrears on April 15 and October 15 of each year, which commenced on October 15, 2022. The Operating Partnership received aggregate net proceeds of $ 870.3 million from these issuances, after underwriting fees of approximately $ 6.5 million and a $ 23.2 million discount, and before offering costs of approximately $ 1.7 million. The Operating Partnership used net proceeds from this offering to repay amounts outstanding on its revolving credit facility, for the redemption of its Series F perpetual preferred shares and for general corporate purposes. The Operating Partnership may redeem the 2032 and 2052 Notes in whole at any time or in part from time to time at the applicable redemption price specified in the indentures with respect to the 2032 and 2052 Notes. If the 2032 Notes are redeemed on or after January 15, 2032 (three months prior to the maturity date), the redemption price will be equal to 100 % of the principal amount of the notes being redeemed plus accrued and unpaid interest thereon to, but not including, the redemption date. If the 2052 Notes are redeemed on or after October 15, 2051 (six months prior to the maturity date), the redemption price will be equal to 100 % of the principal amount of the notes being redeemed plus accrued and unpaid interest thereon to, but not including, the redemption date. During the third quarter of 2021, the Operating Partnership issued $ 450.0 million of 2.375 % unsecured senior notes with a maturity date of July 15, 2031 (the “2031 Notes”) and $ 300.0 million of 3.375 % unsecured senior notes with a maturity date of July 15, 2051 (the “2051 Notes” and, together with the 2031 Notes, the “2031 and 2051 Notes”). Interest on the 2031 and 2051 Notes is payable semi-annually in arrears on January 15 and July 15 of each year, which commenced on January 15, 2022. The Operating Partnership received aggregate net proceeds of $ 731.6 million from these issuances, after underwriting fees of approximately $ 5.6 million and a F-33 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements $ 12.8 million discount, and before offering costs of $ 1.4 million. The Operating Partnership used the net proceeds from this offering to repay amounts outstanding on its revolving credit facility and for general corporate purposes, including, without limitation, property acquisitions and developments, the expansion, redevelopment and/or improvement of existing properties in the Operating Partnership’s portfolio, other capital expenditures, the redemption of its preferred shares, the repayment of outstanding indebtedness, working capital and other general purposes. The Operating Partnership may redeem the 2031 and 2051 Notes in whole at any time or in part from time to time at the applicable redemption price specified in the indentures with respect to the 2031 and 2051 Notes. If the 2031 Notes are redeemed on or after April 15, 2031 (three months prior to the maturity date), the redemption price will be equal to 100 % of the principal amount of the notes being redeemed plus accrued and unpaid interest thereon to, but not including, the redemption date. If the 2051 Notes are redeemed on or after January 15, 2051 (six months prior to the maturity date), the redemption price will be equal to 100 % of the principal amount of the notes being redeemed plus accrued and unpaid interest thereon to, but not including, the redemption date. Including the effect of a cash flow hedging instrument settled during the second quarter of 2021 (see Note 12. Fair Value), the 2031 Notes yield an effective interest rate of 2.46 %. During the first quarter of 2019, the Operating Partnership issued $ 400.0 million of 4.90 % unsecured senior notes with a maturity date of February 15, 2029 (the “2029 Notes”). Interest on the 2029 Notes is payable semi-annually in arrears on February 15 and August 15 of each year, which commenced on August 15, 2019. The Operating Partnership received net proceeds of $ 395.3 million from this issuance, after underwriting fees of approximately $ 2.6 million and a $ 2.1 million discount, and before offering costs of $ 1.0 million. The Operating Partnership used the net proceeds from this issuance to repay amounts outstanding on our revolving credit facility and for general corporate purposes. The Operating Partnership may redeem the 2029 Notes at any time, in whole or in part, at the applicable redemption price specified in the indenture with respect to the 2029 Notes. If the 2029 Notes are redeemed on or after November 15, 2028 (three months prior to the maturity date), the redemption price will be equal to 100 % of the principal amount of the 2029 Notes being redeemed plus accrued and unpaid interest thereon to, but not including, the redemption date. During the first quarter of 2018, the Operating Partnership issued $ 500.0 million of 4.25 % unsecured senior notes with a maturity date of February 15, 2028 (the “2028 Notes”). Interest on the 2028 Notes is payable semi-annually in arrears on February 15 and August 15 of each year, which commenced on August 15, 2018. The Operating Partnership received net proceeds of $ 494.0 million from this issuance, after underwriting fees of approximately $ 3.2 million and a $ 2.8 million discount, and before offering costs of $ 1.9 million. The net proceeds from this issuance were used for general corporate purposes, including, without limitation, acquisitions of additional properties, the repayment of outstanding indebtedness, capital expenditures, the expansion, redevelopment and/or improvement of our properties, working capital and other general purposes, including repurchases of securities. The Operating Partnership may redeem the 2028 Notes at any time, in whole or in part, at the applicable redemption price specified in the indenture with respect to the 2028 Notes. If the 2028 Notes are redeemed on or after November 15, 2027 (three months prior to the maturity date), the redemption price will be equal to 100 % of the principal amount of the 2028 Notes being redeemed plus accrued and unpaid interest thereon to, but not including, the redemption date. Including the effect of a cash flow hedging instrument settled during the first quarter of 2018, the 2028 Notes yield an effective interest rate of 4.08 %. The 2028 Notes, 2029 Notes, 2031 Notes, 2032 Notes, 2051 Notes and 2052 Notes are the Operating Partnership’s unsecured and unsubordinated obligations and rank equally in right of payment with all of the Operating Partnership’s existing and future unsecured and unsubordinated indebtedness. The indentures require that we maintain certain financial covenants. Revolving Credit Facility During the second quarter of 2021, the Company closed a $ 1.25 billion revolving credit facility, amending its existing $ 800 million revolving credit facility. The amended revolving credit facility provides for expanded borrowing capacity, reflects a more favorable pricing grid based on current market conditions, and includes a sustainability component based upon third-party performance measures through which overall pricing can further improve if the Company meets certain targets. The interest rate on the amended revolving credit facility is at either LIBOR plus a margin ranging from 0.725 % to 1.45 % or a base rate (determined according to the greater of a prime rate, federal funds rate plus 0.5 % or daily LIBOR rate plus 1.0 %) plus a margin ranging from 0.00 % to 0.45 %. In each case the actual margin is determined based on the Company’s credit ratings in effect from time to time. The amended revolving credit facility matures on April 15, 2025, with two six-month extension options at the Company’s election if certain conditions are met. In addition, the Company is required to pay a facility fee of an amount ranging from 0.125 % to 0.30 % of the aggregate amount of the revolving commitments, which fee is also based on the Company’s credit rating. F-34 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements Interest Expense The following table summarizes our (i) gross interest cost, which includes fees on our credit facilities and amortization of deferred financing costs and the discounts on unsecured senior notes and (ii) capitalized interest for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020 (amounts in thousands): For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Gross interest cost $ 186,956 $ 148,689 $ 137,034 Capitalized interest ( 52,085 ) ( 33,796 ) ( 19,996 ) Interest expense $ 134,871 $ 114,893 $ 117,038 Note 8. Accounts Payable and Accrued Expenses The following table summarizes accounts payable and accrued expenses as of December 31, 2022 and 2021 (amounts in thousands): December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 Resident security deposits $ 119,386 $ 105,809 Accrued construction and maintenance liabilities 86,775 50,655 Liability for consolidated land not owned (see Note 2) 69,434 — Accrued property taxes 51,586 52,545 Accrued interest 40,126 33,332 Prepaid rent 26,922 31,190 Operating lease liabilities 20,755 18,723 Accounts payable 5,719 1,113 Other accrued liabilities 63,700 50,159 Total $ 484,403 $ 343,526 Note 9. Shareholders’ Equity / Partners’ Capital When the Company issues common or preferred shares, the Operating Partnership issues an equivalent number of units of partnership interest of a corresponding class to AMH, with the Operating Partnership receiving the net proceeds from the share issuances. Class A Common Shares / Units Class A units represent voting equity interests in the Operating Partnership. Holders of Class A units in the Operating Partnership have the right to redeem the units for cash or, at the election of the Company, exchange the units for AMH’s Class A common shares on a one -for-one basis. AMH owned 87.3 % and 86.8 % of the total 404,893,881 and 389,374,771 Class A units outstanding as of December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively. During the first quarter of 2022, the Company completed an underwritten public offering for 23,000,000 of its Class A common shares of beneficial interest, $ 0.01 par value per share, of which 10,000,000 shares were issued directly by the Company and 13,000,000 shares were offered on a forward basis at the request of the Company by the forward sellers. In connection with this offering, the Company entered into forward sale agreements with the forward purchasers (the “2022 Forward Sale Agreements”) for these 13,000,000 shares which are accounted for in equity. The Company received net proceeds of $ 375.8 million from the 10,000,000 Class A common shares issued directly by the Company after deducting underwriting fees and before offering costs of approximately $ 0.2 million. The Company did not initially receive proceeds from the sale of the Class A common shares offered on a forward basis. During the third quarter of 2022, the Company issued and physically settled 5,000,000 Class A common shares under the 2022 Forward Sale Agreements, receiving net proceeds of $ 185.6 million. The Company used these net proceeds to repay indebtedness under its revolving credit facility and for general corporate purposes. As of December 31, 2022, 8,000,000 Class A common shares remained available for future settlement under the 2022 Forward Sale Agreements. In January 2023, the Company issued and F-35 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements physically settled the remaining 8,000,000 Class A common shares, receiving net proceeds of $ 298.4 million. The Company used these net proceeds to repay indebtedness under its revolving credit facility and for general corporate purposes. During the second quarter of 2021, the Company completed an underwritten public offering for 18,745,000 of its Class A common shares of beneficial interest, $ 0.01 par value per share, of which 5,500,000 shares were issued directly by the Company and 13,245,000 shares were offered on a forward basis at the request of the Company by the forward sellers. In connection with this offering, the Company entered into forward sale agreements with the forward purchasers (the “2021 Forward Sale Agreements”) for these 13,245,000 shares which are accounted for in equity. The Company received net proceeds of $ 194.0 million from the 5,500,000 Class A common shares issued directly by the Company after deducting underwriting fees and before offering costs of approximately $ 0.2 million. The Company used the net proceeds to repay indebtedness under its revolving credit facility, to partially fund the redemption of its Series D and Series E perpetual preferred shares discussed below and for general corporate purposes. The Company did not initially receive proceeds from the sale of the Class A common shares offered on a forward basis. During the third and fourth quarters of 2021, the Company issued and physically settled all 13,245,000 Class A common shares under the 2021 Forward Sale Agreements, receiving net proceeds of $ 463.5 million. The Company used these net proceeds for general corporate purposes including property acquisitions and developments. During the third quarter of 2020, the Company issued 14,950,000 Class A common shares of beneficial interest, $ 0.01 par value per share, in an underwritten public offering, raising net proceeds of $ 411.7 million after deducting underwriting fees and before offering costs of approximately $ 0.2 million. The Company used the net proceeds from this offering (i) to repay indebtedness the Company had incurred under its revolving credit facility (ii) to develop new single-family properties and communities, (iii) to acquire and renovate single-family properties and for related activities in accordance with its business strategy and (iv) for general corporate purposes. At-the-Market Common Share Offering Program During the second quarter of 2020, the Company extended its at-the-market common share offering program under which it can issue Class A common shares from time to time through various sales agents up to an aggregate gross sales offering price of $ 500.0 million (the “At-the-Market Program”). The At-the-Market Program also provides that we may enter into forward contracts for our Class A common shares with forward sellers and forward purchasers. The Company intends to use any net proceeds from the At-the-Market Program (i) to repay indebtedness the Company has incurred or expects to incur under its revolving credit facility, (ii) to develop new single-family properties and communities, (iii) to acquire and renovate single-family properties and for related activities in accordance with its business strategy and (iv) for working capital and general corporate purposes, including repurchases of the Company’s securities, acquisitions of additional properties, capital expenditures and the expansion, redevelopment and/or improvement of properties in the Company’s portfolio. The At-the-Market Program may be suspended or terminated by the Company at any time. During the year ended December 31, 2022, no shares were issued under the At-the-Market Program. During the year ended December 31, 2021, the Company issued 1,749,286 Class A common shares under the At-the-Market Program, raising $ 72.3 million in gross proceeds before commissions and other expenses of approximately $ 1.1 million. During the year ended December 31, 2020, the Company issued 86,130 Class A common shares under the At-the-Market Program, raising $ 2.4 million in gross proceeds before commissions and other expenses of approximately $ 0.4 million. As of December 31, 2022, 1,835,416 shares have been issued under the At-the-Market Program and $ 425.2 million remained available for future share issuances. Share Repurchase Program The Company’s board of trustees authorized the establishment of our share repurchase program for the repurchase of up to $ 300.0 million of our outstanding Class A common shares and up to $ 250.0 million of our outstanding preferred shares from time to time in the open market or in privately negotiated transactions. The program does not have an expiration date, but may be suspended or discontinued at any time without notice. All repurchased shares are constructively retired and returned to an authorized and unissued status. The Operating Partnership funds the repurchases and constructively retires an equivalent number of corresponding Class A units. During the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, we did no t repurchase and retire any of our Class A common shares or preferred shares. As of December 31, 2022, we had a remaining repurchase authorization of up to $ 265.1 million of our outstanding Class A common shares and up to $ 250.0 million of our outstanding preferred shares under the program. F-36 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements Class B Common Shares Former American Homes 4 Rent, LLC (“AH LLC”) members received 635,075 Class B common shares in connection with their contributions of properties and funds to the Company. The Operating Partnership issued an equivalent number of corresponding Class A units to AMH in exchange for the proceeds and properties contributed in the transaction. Each Class B common share generally entitles the holder to 50 votes on all matters that the holders of Class A common shares are entitled to vote. The issuance of Class B common shares to former AH LLC members allows former AH LLC members a voting right associated with their investment in the Company no greater than if they had solely received Class A common shares. Additionally, when the voting interest from Class A common shares and Class B common shares are added together, a shareholder is limited to a 30 % total voting interest. Each Class B common share has the same economic interest as a Class A common share. Perpetual Preferred Shares / Units As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, the Company had the following series of perpetual preferred shares outstanding (amounts in thousands, except share data): December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 Series Issuance Date Earliest Redemption Date Dividend Rate Outstanding Shares Current Liquidation Value Outstanding Shares Current Liquidation Value Series F perpetual preferred shares April 24, 2017 April 24, 2022 5.875 % — $ — 6,200,000 $ 155,000 Series G perpetual preferred shares July 17, 2017 July 17, 2022 5.875 % 4,600,000 115,000 4,600,000 115,000 Series H perpetual preferred shares September 19, 2018 September 19, 2023 6.250 % 4,600,000 115,000 4,600,000 115,000 Total preferred shares 9,200,000 $ 230,000 15,400,000 $ 385,000 Perpetual preferred shares represent non-voting preferred equity interests in the Company and entitle holders to a cumulative annual cash dividend, based on the respective dividend rate in the table above, which is applied to the liquidation preference at issuance of $ 25.00 per share. The Operating Partnership issues an equivalent number of corresponding perpetual preferred units for the given class to AMH in exchange for the net proceeds from the share issuances. The Company may, at its option, redeem the perpetual preferred shares for cash, in whole or in part, from time to time, at any time on or after the earliest redemption date shown in the table above or within 120 days after the occurrence of a change in control at a redemption price equal to the $ 25.00 per share liquidation preference, plus any accumulated and unpaid dividends. During the second quarter of 2022, the Company redeemed all 6,200,000 shares of the outstanding 5.875 % Series F perpetual preferred shares, $ 0.01 par value per share, for cash at the liquidation preference of $ 25.00 per share plus any accrued and unpaid dividends in accordance with the terms of such shares. The Operating Partnership also redeemed its corresponding Series F perpetual preferred units. As a result of the redemption, the Company recorded a $ 5.3 million allocation of income to the Series F perpetual preferred shareholders within the consolidated statements of operations during the year ended December 31, 2022, which represents the initial liquidation value of the Series F perpetual preferred shares in excess of its carrying value as of the redemption date. During the second quarter of 2021, the Company redeemed all 10,750,000 shares of the outstanding 6.500 % Series D perpetual preferred shares, $ 0.01 par value per share, for cash at a liquidation preference of $ 25.00 per share plus any accrued and unpaid dividends in accordance with the terms of such shares. The Operating Partnership also redeemed its corresponding Series D perpetual preferred units. As a result of the redemption, the Company recorded an $ 8.5 million allocation of income to the Series D perpetual preferred shareholders within the consolidated statements of operations during the year ended December 31, 2021, which represents the initial liquidation value of the Series D perpetual preferred shares in excess of its carrying value as of the redemption date. During the second quarter of 2021, the Company redeemed all 9,200,000 shares of the outstanding 6.350 % Series E perpetual preferred shares, $ 0.01 par value per share, for cash at a liquidation preference of $ 25.00 per share plus accrued and unpaid dividends in accordance with the terms of such shares. The Operating Partnership also redeemed its corresponding Series E perpetual preferred units. As a result of the redemption, the Company recorded a $ 7.4 million allocation of income to the Series E perpetual preferred shareholders within the consolidated statements of operations during the year ended December 31, 2021, which represents the initial liquidation value of the Series E perpetual preferred shares in excess of its carrying value as of the redemption date. F-37 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements Distributions As a REIT, we generally are required to distribute annually to our shareholders at least 90 % of our REIT taxable income (determined without regard to the deduction for dividends paid and any net capital gains) and to pay tax at regular corporate rates to the extent that we annually distribute less than 100 % of our REIT taxable income (determined without regard to the deduction for dividends paid and including any net capital gains). The Operating Partnership funds the payment of distributions. AMH had an NOL for U.S. federal income tax purposes of an estimated $ 11.8 million as of December 31, 2022 and $ 25.4 million as of December 31, 2021. We intend to use our NOL (to the extent available) to reduce our REIT taxable income to the extent that REIT taxable income is not reduced by our deduction for dividends paid. No distributions can be paid on our Class A and Class B common shares unless we have first paid all cumulative distributions on our Series G and Series H perpetual preferred shares. The distribution preference of our Series G and Series H perpetual preferred shares could limit our ability to make distributions to the holders of our Class A and Class B common shares. The Company’s board of trustees declared the following distributions during the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020. The Operating Partnership funds the payment of distributions, and the board of trustees declared an equivalent amount of distributions on the corresponding OP units. For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Class A and Class B common shares $ 0.72 $ 0.40 $ 0.20 6.500 % Series D perpetual preferred shares (1) — 0.70 1.63 6.350 % Series E perpetual preferred shares (2) — 0.79 1.59 5.875 % Series F perpetual preferred shares (3) 0.51 1.47 1.47 5.875 % Series G perpetual preferred shares 1.47 1.47 1.47 6.250 % Series H perpetual preferred shares 1.56 1.56 1.56 (1) The 6.500 % Series D perpetual preferred shares were redeemed on June 7, 2021 and the distributions for the year ended December 31, 2021 include the accrued and unpaid dividends paid to shareholders as part of the redemption. (2) The 6.350 % Series E perpetual preferred shares were redeemed on June 30, 2021. (3) The 5.875 % Series F perpetual preferred shares were redeemed on May 5, 2022 and the distributions for the year ended December 31, 2022 include the accrued and unpaid dividends paid to shareholders as part of the redemption. Noncontrolling Interest Noncontrolling interest as reflected in the Company’s consolidated balance sheets primarily consists of the interests held by former AH LLC members in units in the Operating Partnership. Former AH LLC members owned 50,779,990 , or approximately 12.5 % and 13.0 %, of the total 404,893,881 and 389,374,771 Class A units in the Operating Partnership as of December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively. Noncontrolling interest also includes interests held by non-affiliates in Class A units in the Operating Partnership. Non-affiliate Class A unitholders owned 596,990 , or approximately 0.2 % of the total 404,893,881 and 389,374,771 Class A units in the Operating Partnership as of December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The OP units owned by former AH LLC members and non-affiliates are reflected as noncontrolling interest in the Company’s consolidated balance sheets and limited partner capital in the Operating Partnership’s consolidated balance sheets. Note 10. Share-Based Compensation 2021 Equity Incentive Plan During the second quarter of 2021, the Company’s shareholders approved and the Company adopted the 2021 Equity Incentive Plan (the “2021 Plan”). The 2021 Plan replaced the 2012 Equity Incentive Plan (the “2012 Plan”) and provides for the issuance of up to 9,544,095 Class A common shares (including shares that remained available for future awards under the 2012 Plan as of the effective date of the 2021 Plan and shares related to outstanding awards under the 2012 Plan that may become available after expiration, forfeiture or cancellation of such awards). The 2021 Plan provides for the issuance of Class A common shares through the grant of a variety of awards including stock options, stock appreciation rights, RSUs, unrestricted shares, dividend equivalent rights and performance-based awards. The 2021 Plan terminates in May 2031, unless terminated earlier by the Company’s board of trustees. When the Company issues Class A common shares under the 2021 Plan, the Operating Partnership issues an equivalent number of Class A units to AMH. F-38 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements During the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, employees were granted RSUs that vest over a one - to three-year service period and non-management trustees were granted RSUs that vest over a one-year service period. Options expire 10 years from the date of grant. During the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, certain senior employees were granted PSUs that cliff vest at the end of a three-year service period. The performance conditions of the PSUs are measured over the three-year performance period January 1, 2022 through December 31, 2024 for PSUs granted during the year ended December 31, 2022 and January 1, 2021 through December 31, 2023 for PSUs granted during the year ended December 31, 2021. A portion of the PSUs are based on (i) the achievement of relative total shareholder return compared to a specified peer group (the “TSR Awards”), and a portion are based on (ii) average annual growth in core funds from operations per share (the “Core FFO Awards”). The number of PSUs that may ultimately vest range from zero to 200 % of the number of PSUs granted based on the level of achievement of these performance conditions. For the TSR Awards, grant date fair value was determined using a multifactor Monte Carlo model and the resulting compensation cost is amortized over the service period regardless of whether the performance condition is achieved. For the Core FFO Awards, fair value is based on the market value on the date of grant and compensation cost is recognized based on the probable achievement of the performance condition at each reporting period. The 2012 Plan and 2021 Plan allow for continued release of awards based on the original vesting schedule, rather than forfeiture, of unvested share-based grants upon termination of service for employees who meet certain retirement eligibility criteria, including age and years of service. Retirement eligible employees must also provide a notice of intent to retire at least six months prior to retirement date and the HCC Committee must approve the continued release of awards. The following table summarizes stock option activity under the 2012 Plan and 2021 Plan for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020: Shares Weighted-Average Exercise Price Weighted-Average Remaining Contractual Life (in years) Aggregate Intrinsic Value (1) (amounts in thousands) Options outstanding at December 31, 2019 1,529,800 $ 17.40 5.3 $ 13,479 Granted — — Exercised ( 426,150 ) 16.55 4,911 Forfeited ( 13,350 ) 21.89 Options outstanding at December 31, 2020 1,090,300 $ 17.68 4.5 $ 13,436 Granted — — Exercised ( 266,000 ) 17.01 5,625 Forfeited — — Options outstanding at December 31, 2021 824,300 $ 17.89 3.7 $ 21,200 Granted — — Exercised ( 93,750 ) 17.26 1,782 Forfeited — — Options outstanding at December 31, 2022 730,550 $ 17.97 3.0 $ 8,889 Options exercisable at December 31, 2022 725,550 $ 17.96 3.0 $ 8,841 (1) Intrinsic value for activities other than exercises is defined as the difference between the grant price and the market value on the last trading day of the period for those stock options where the market value is greater than the grant price. For exercises, intrinsic value is defined as the difference between the grant price and the market value on the date of exercise. F-39 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements The following table summarizes RSU activity under the 2012 Plan and 2021 Plan for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020: Restricted Share Units Weighted- Average Grant Date Fair Value RSUs outstanding at December 31, 2019 599,109 $ 21.71 Awarded 470,147 27.38 Vested ( 316,186 ) 23.61 Forfeited ( 101,533 ) 23.93 RSUs outstanding at December 31, 2020 651,537 $ 24.53 Awarded 651,898 32.69 Vested ( 209,824 ) 23.15 Forfeited ( 43,012 ) 28.41 RSUs outstanding at December 31, 2021 1,050,599 $ 29.71 Awarded 466,802 39.52 Vested ( 439,643 ) 29.41 Forfeited ( 53,036 ) 35.85 RSUs outstanding at December 31, 2022 1,024,722 $ 33.99 The following table summarizes PSU activity under the 2012 Plan and 2021 Plan for the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021: Performance-Based Restricted Share Units Weighted-Average Grant Date Fair Value PSUs outstanding at December 31, 2020 — $ — Awarded 92,319 34.83 Vested — — Forfeited — — PSUs outstanding at December 31, 2021 92,319 $ 34.83 Awarded 202,104 43.91 Vested — — Forfeited — — PSUs outstanding at December 31, 2022 294,423 $ 41.07 For the TSR Awards, the following assumptions were used in the calculation of fair value using the Monte Carlo simulation model: 2022 2021 Expected term (years) 3.0 3.0 Dividend yield 1.03 % 0.67 % Estimated volatility (1) 27.62 % 28.48 % Risk-free interest rate 1.39 % 0.2 % (1) Estimated volatility for the performance period is based on 50% historical volatility and 50% implied volatility. 2021 Employee Stock Purchase Plan During the second quarter of 2021, the Company’s shareholders approved and the Company adopted the 2021 Employee Stock Purchase Plan (the “2021 ESPP”), which provides for the issuance of 3,000,000 Class A common shares. The 2021 ESPP terminates in June 2031 or the date on which there are no longer any Class A common shares available for issuance. The 2021 ESPP allows employees to acquire the Company’s Class A common shares through payroll deductions, subject to maximum purchase limitations, during six-month purchase periods. The purchase price for Class A common shares may be set at a maximum discount equal to 85 % of the lower of the closing price of the Company’s Class A common shares on the first day or the last day of the applicable purchase period. When the Company issues Class A common shares under the 2021 ESPP, the Operating Partnership issues an equivalent number of Class A units to AMH. F-40 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements Share-Based Compensation Expense The Company’s noncash share-based compensation expense relating to corporate administrative employees is included in general and administrative expense and the noncash share-based compensation expense relating to centralized and field property management employees is included in property management expenses. Noncash share-based compensation expense relating to employees involved in the purchases of single-family properties, including newly constructed properties from third-party builders, the development of single-family properties, or the disposal of certain properties or portfolios of properties is included in acquisition and other transaction costs. The following table summarizes the activity related to the Company’s noncash share-based compensation expense for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020 (amounts in thousands): For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 General and administrative expense $ 15,318 $ 9,361 $ 6,573 Property management expenses 3,861 3,004 1,745 Acquisition and other transaction costs 8,129 5,427 1,516 Total noncash share-based compensation expense $ 27,308 $ 17,792 $ 9,834 As of December 31, 2022, the unrecognized compensation expense for unvested RSUs and PSUs was $ 14.9 million and $ 5.0 million, respectively. The unrecognized compensation expense for unvested RSUs and PSUs is expected to be recognized over a weighted-average period of 1.4 years and 1.8 years, respectively. Note 11. Earnings per Share / Unit American Homes 4 Rent The following table reflects the Company’s computation of net income per common share on a basic and diluted basis for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020 (amounts in thousands, except share and per share data): For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Numerator: Net income $ 310,025 $ 210,559 $ 154,829 Less: Noncontrolling interest 36,887 21,467 14,455 Dividends on preferred shares 17,081 37,923 55,128 Redemption of perpetual preferred shares 5,276 15,879 — Allocation to participating securities (1) 767 418 217 Numerator for income per common share–basic and diluted $ 250,014 $ 134,872 $ 85,029 Denominator: Weighted-average common shares outstanding–basic 349,290,848 324,245,168 306,613,197 Effect of dilutive securities: Share-based compensation plan and forward sale equity contracts (2) 496,244 1,273,123 461,550 Weighted-average common shares outstanding–diluted (3) 349,787,092 325,518,291 307,074,747 Net income per common share: Basic $ 0.72 $ 0.42 $ 0.28 Diluted $ 0.71 $ 0.41 $ 0.28 (1) Unvested RSUs that have nonforfeitable rights to participate in dividends declared on common stock are accounted for as participating securities and reflected in the calculation of basic and diluted earnings per share using the two-class method. (2) Reflects the effect of potentially dilutive securities issuable upon the assumed exercise of stock options and the dilutive effect of forward sale equity contracts under the treasury stock method (see Note 9. Shareholders’ Equity / Partners’ Capital). (3) The effect of the potential conversion of OP units is not reflected in the computation of basic and diluted earnings per share, as they are exchangeable for Class A common shares on a one -for-one basis. The income allocable to the OP units is allocated on this same basis and reflected as noncontrolling interest in the accompanying consolidated financial statements. As such, the assumed conversion of the OP units would have no net impact on the determination of diluted earnings per share. F-41 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. The following table reflects the Operating Partnership’s computation of net income per common unit on a basic and diluted basis for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020 (amounts in thousands, except unit and per unit data): For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Numerator: Net income $ 310,025 $ 210,559 $ 154,829 Less: Preferred distributions 17,081 37,923 55,128 Redemption of perpetual preferred units 5,276 15,879 — Allocation to participating securities (1) 767 418 217 Numerator for income per common unit–basic and diluted $ 286,901 $ 156,339 $ 99,484 Denominator: Weighted-average common units outstanding–basic 400,667,828 375,693,107 358,603,291 Effect of dilutive securities: Share-based compensation plan and forward sale equity contracts (2) 496,244 1,273,123 461,550 Weighted-average common units outstanding–diluted 401,164,072 376,966,230 359,064,841 Net income per common unit: Basic $ 0.72 $ 0.42 $ 0.28 Diluted $ 0.71 $ 0.41 $ 0.28 (1) Unvested RSUs that have nonforfeitable rights to participate in dividends declared on common stock are accounted for as participating securities and reflected in the calculation of basic and diluted earnings per unit using the two-class method. (2) Reflects the effect of potentially dilutive securities issuable upon the assumed exercise of stock options and the dilutive effect of forward sale equity contracts under the treasury stock method (see Note 9. Shareholders’ Equity / Partners’ Capital). Note 12. Fair Value The carrying amount of rents and other receivables, restricted cash, escrow deposits, prepaid expenses and other assets, and accounts payable and accrued expenses generally approximate fair value because of the short maturity of these amounts. Our notes receivable are financial instruments classified as Level 3 in the fair value hierarchy as their fair values were estimated using unobservable inputs. We estimated the fair values of the notes receivable by modeling the expected contractual cash flows required under the instruments and discounting them back to their present values using estimates of current market rates. As the estimated current market rates were not substantially different from the discount rates originally applied, the carrying amount of notes receivable, net approximates fair value. Our asset-backed securitizations and revolving credit facility are financial instruments classified as Level 3 in the fair value hierarchy as their fair values were estimated using unobservable inputs. We estimated the fair values of the asset-backed securitizations by modeling the contractual cash flows required under the instruments and discounting them back to their present values using estimates of current market rates. As our revolving credit facility bears interest at a floating rate based on an index plus a spread (see Note 7. Debt), management believes that the carrying value (excluding deferred financing costs) of the revolving credit facility reasonably approximates fair value. Our unsecured senior notes are financial instruments classified as Level 2 in the fair value hierarchy as their fair values were estimated using observable inputs based on the market value of the last trade at the end of the period. F-42 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements The following table displays the carrying values and fair values of our debt instruments as of December 31, 2022 and 2021 (amounts in thousands): December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 Carrying Value Fair Value Carrying Value Fair Value AMH 2014-SFR2 securitization $ 465,864 $ 469,192 $ 470,039 $ 479,464 AMH 2014-SFR3 securitization 480,467 484,350 485,005 495,659 AMH 2015-SFR1 securitization 505,738 509,714 510,585 521,639 AMH 2015-SFR2 securitization 438,773 442,286 442,717 455,264 Total asset-backed securitizations 1,890,842 1,905,542 1,908,346 1,952,026 2028 unsecured senior notes, net 495,956 463,920 495,166 554,895 2029 unsecured senior notes, net 396,543 377,680 395,990 463,840 2031 unsecured senior notes, net 441,133 347,243 440,095 442,953 2032 unsecured senior notes, net 581,533 504,294 — — 2051 unsecured senior notes, net 291,189 189,750 290,881 304,461 2052 unsecured senior notes, net 288,802 221,922 — — Total unsecured senior notes, net 2,495,156 2,104,809 1,622,132 1,766,149 Revolving credit facility 130,000 130,000 350,000 350,000 Total debt $ 4,515,998 $ 4,140,351 $ 3,880,478 $ 4,068,175 During the first quarter of 2021, in anticipation of a debt issuance and in order to hedge interest rate risk, the Company entered into a treasury lock agreement with a notional amount of $ 400.0 million based on the 10 -year treasury note rate at the time. The treasury lock was designated as a cash flow hedging instrument. The Company settled the treasury lock during the second quarter of 2021 in connection with the pricing of the 2031 Notes (see Note 7. Debt), which resulted in a $ 4.0 million loss recorded in other comprehensive loss at the time that will be reclassified into earnings as an increase to interest expense over the 10 -year term of the 2031 Notes. The treasury lock was the only financial instrument recorded at fair value on a recurring basis in the consolidated financial statements and was classified as Level 2 within the fair value hierarchy as its fair value was estimated using observable inputs based on the 10 -year treasury note rate. Note 13. Related Party Transactions As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, affiliates owned approximately 12.9 % and 13.5 %, respectively, of the Company’s outstanding Class A common shares. On a fully-diluted basis, affiliates held (including consideration of 635,075 Class B common shares and 50,622,165 Class A units as of December 31, 2022 and 2021) an approximate 23.9 % and 24.8 % interest as of December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively. During the fourth quarter of 2020, we entered into a settlement and release agreement with a former employee, pursuant to which the parties agreed to settle any and all claims arising out of the employee’s relationship with the company. We paid $ 2.9 million, net of insurance proceeds, related to this matter, which is included in other income and expense, net within the consolidated statements of operations. As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, the Operating Partnership had a receivable from affiliates of $ 25.7 million related to the asset-backed securitization certificates held by AMH, which is included in amounts due from affiliates on the Operating Partnership’s consolidated balance sheets. See Note 6. Investments in Unconsolidated Joint Ventures for a description of related party transactions between the Company and its unconsolidated joint ventures. F-43 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements Note 14. Commitments and Contingencies Operating Leases The Company leases office space from third parties for our corporate and property management operations under non-cancelable operating lease agreements. Our operating leases have remaining lease terms of one to nine years before any unexercised options to extend. For the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, operating lease costs were as follows (amounts in thousands): For the Years Ended December 31, 2022 2021 2020 Lease costs $ 3,897 $ 3,957 $ 3,447 Other information related to our operating lease terms and discount rates were as follows: December 31, 2022 December 31, 2021 Weighted-average remaining lease term 6.6 years 7.9 years Weighted-average discount rate 2.6 % 2.8 % Future lease obligations for our operating leases as of December 31, 2022 were as follows (amounts in thousands): Operating Lease Obligations 2023 $ 3,917 2024 3,889 2025 3,526 2026 2,703 2027 2,276 Thereafter 6,453 Total lease payments 22,764 Less: imputed interest ( 2,009 ) Operating lease liabilities $ 20,755 Other Commitments As of December 31, 2022, the Company had commitments to acquire 52 single-family properties for an aggregate purchase price of $ 12.3 million, as well as $ 228.9 million in purchase commitments for land relating to our AMH Development Program, which includes certain land deals expected to close beyond twelve months when development is ready to commence. Purchase commitments exclude option contracts where we have acquired the right to purchase land for our AMH Development Program or single-family properties because the contracts do not contain provisions requiring our specific performance. As of December 31, 2022, the Company had sales in escrow for approximately 237 of our single-family properties and 50 of our land lots for an aggregate selling price of $ 73.8 million. As of December 31, 2022, the Company, as a condition for entering into some of its development contracts, had outstanding surety bonds of approximately $ 185.3 million. 401(k) Retirement Savings Plan We have a retirement savings plan pursuant to Section 401(k) of the Code whereby our employees may contribute a portion of their compensation to their respective retirement accounts in an amount not to exceed the maximum allowed under the Code. In addition to employee contributions, we have elected to provide company contributions (subject to statutory limitations), which amounted to approximately $ 3.1 million, $ 2.5 million and $ 2.0 million for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. F-44 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements Captive Insurance Company During the first quarter of 2021, the Company formed a wholly owned captive insurance company, American Dream Insurance, LLC, which provides general liability insurance coverage for losses below the deductible under the Company’s third-party liability insurance policy. The Company created American Dream Insurance, LLC as part of its overall risk management program and to stabilize its insurance costs, manage exposure and recoup expenses through the functions of the captive program. The captive insurance company’s impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements is immaterial. Legal Matters During the third quarter of 2020, we received a notice from the Georgia Attorney General’s Office (the “Georgia AG”) seeking certain information relevant to an investigation they are conducting about our customary landlord-tenant matters. We have been cooperating with the Georgia AG and have been discussing a possible negotiated resolution with the Georgia AG. We are involved in various other legal and administrative proceedings that are incidental to our business. We believe these matters will not have a materially adverse effect on our financial position or results of operations upon resolution. Note 15. Subsequent Events Subsequent Acquisitions From January 1, 2023 through February 17, 2023, the Company added 127 properties to its portfolio for a total cost of approximately $ 42.6 million, which included 123 newly constructed properties delivered through our AMH Development Program and four newly constructed homes acquired from third-party developers through our National Builder Program. Subsequent Dispositions From January 1, 2023 through February 17, 2023, the Company disposed of 319 properties for aggregate net proceeds of approximately $ 87.4 million. Revolving Credit Facility From January 1, 2023 through February 17, 2023, the Company paid down $ 130.0 million under its revolving credit facility, resulting in zero outstanding borrowings under its revolving credit facility as of February 17, 2023. Distributions On February 10, 2023, the Company’s board of trustees approved an increase in quarterly dividends to $ 0.22 per Class A and Class B common share for the first quarter of 2023. The quarterly dividends are payable on March 31, 2023 to shareholders of record on March 15, 2023. 2022 Forward Sale Agreements Settlement In January 2023, the Company issued and physically settled the remaining 8,000,000 Class A common shares under the January 2022 Forward Sale Agreements, receiving net proceeds of $ 298.4 million. See Note 9. Shareholders’ Equity / Partners’ Capital. F-45 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Schedule III—Real Estate and Accumulated Depreciation as of December 31, 2022 (Amounts in thousands, except number of single-family homes) Initial Cost to Company Cost Capitalized Subsequent to Acquisition Total Cost as of December 31, 2022 (1) Market Number of Single-Family Homes Gross Book Value of Encumbered Assets Land Buildings and Improvements Land Buildings and Improvements Land Buildings and Improvements Total Accumulated Depreciation Net Cost Basis Date of Acquisition Single-family properties in operation Albuquerque, NM 271 $ — $ 9,987 $ 39,974 $ — $ 6,122 $ 9,987 $ 46,096 $ 56,083 $ ( 10,334 ) $ 45,749 2013-2022 Atlanta, GA 5,805 204,285 209,358 869,248 — 177,486 209,358 1,046,734 1,256,092 ( 213,205 ) 1,042,887 2012-2022 Austin, TX 772 36,223 29,383 112,485 — 18,446 29,383 130,931 160,314 ( 33,120 ) 127,194 2012-2022 Boise, ID 806 8,013 34,217 155,630 — 31,339 34,217 186,969 221,186 ( 21,929 ) 199,257 2013-2022 Charleston, SC 1,524 84,115 67,492 237,371 — 40,793 67,492 278,164 345,656 ( 53,403 ) 292,253 2012-2022 Charlotte, NC 3,962 316,302 153,613 586,546 — 97,054 153,613 683,600 837,213 ( 162,498 ) 674,715 2012-2022 Cincinnati, OH 2,131 240,076 70,684 284,433 — 59,015 70,684 343,448 414,132 ( 99,134 ) 314,998 2012-2022 Colorado Springs, CO 106 — 7,895 33,259 — 3,807 7,895 37,066 44,961 ( 2,208 ) 42,753 2013-2022 Columbus, OH 2,110 145,698 65,116 272,162 — 60,014 65,116 332,176 397,292 ( 88,075 ) 309,217 2012-2022 Dallas-Fort Worth, TX 4,224 287,739 111,823 511,853 — 111,999 111,823 623,852 735,675 ( 190,222 ) 545,453 2012-2022 Denver, CO 842 — 47,993 187,797 — 26,766 47,993 214,563 262,556 ( 56,756 ) 205,800 2012-2022 Greater Chicago area, IL and IN 1,611 167,260 50,926 199,847 — 53,479 50,926 253,326 304,252 ( 89,845 ) 214,407 2012-2015 Greensboro, NC 731 54,095 22,075 99,702 — 15,854 22,075 115,556 137,631 ( 31,789 ) 105,842 2013-2022 Greenville, SC 774 74,461 22,371 115,222 — 18,782 22,371 134,004 156,375 ( 32,982 ) 123,393 2013-2022 Houston, TX 2,642 151,691 58,566 336,662 — 69,825 58,566 406,487 465,053 ( 119,288 ) 345,765 2012-2022 Indianapolis, IN 2,910 303,038 83,631 334,909 — 80,853 83,631 415,762 499,393 ( 127,579 ) 371,814 2012-2022 Inland Empire, CA 44 — 4,938 5,719 — 1,096 4,938 6,815 11,753 ( 1,914 ) 9,839 2014-2016 Jacksonville, FL 2,891 62,509 99,360 421,766 — 81,727 99,360 503,493 602,853 ( 103,991 ) 498,862 2012-2022 Knoxville, TN 449 17,855 16,286 81,245 — 10,323 16,286 91,568 107,854 ( 21,506 ) 86,348 2013-2022 Las Vegas, NV 1,854 22,437 95,701 317,284 — 80,210 95,701 397,494 493,195 ( 62,376 ) 430,819 2011-2022 Memphis, TN 688 17,374 24,166 89,211 — 17,767 24,166 106,978 131,144 ( 27,110 ) 104,034 2013-2022 Miami, FL 179 3,485 2,129 20,817 — 5,303 2,129 26,120 28,249 ( 9,168 ) 19,081 2013-2015 Milwaukee, WI 94 — 5,776 16,604 — 2,342 5,776 18,946 24,722 ( 6,673 ) 18,049 2013 Nashville, TN 3,238 235,777 140,135 542,035 — 93,629 140,135 635,664 775,799 ( 142,443 ) 633,356 2012-2022 Orlando, FL 1,867 47,245 70,966 255,720 — 52,376 70,966 308,096 379,062 ( 74,936 ) 304,126 2011-2022 Phoenix, AZ 3,405 57,352 160,653 469,853 — 81,428 160,653 551,281 711,934 ( 123,539 ) 588,395 2011-2022 Portland, OR 184 24,227 13,285 23,880 — 3,434 13,285 27,314 40,599 ( 7,281 ) 33,318 2013-2022 Raleigh, NC 2,177 227,066 78,226 304,670 — 46,270 78,226 350,940 429,166 ( 94,873 ) 334,293 2012-2022 Salt Lake City, UT 1,908 162,302 120,585 379,814 — 75,505 120,585 455,319 575,904 ( 86,876 ) 489,028 2012-2022 San Antonio, TX 1,325 61,205 40,081 178,430 — 39,546 40,081 217,976 258,057 ( 46,527 ) 211,530 2012-2022 Savannah/Hilton Head, SC 1,042 42,614 38,603 155,239 — 22,718 38,603 177,957 216,560 ( 35,227 ) 181,333 2013-2022 Seattle, WA 1,141 28,558 91,501 251,741 — 26,701 91,501 278,442 369,943 ( 44,313 ) 325,630 2012-2022 Tampa, FL 2,729 46,790 108,203 422,563 — 71,887 108,203 494,450 602,653 ( 112,530 ) 490,123 2012-2022 Tucson, AZ 598 12,408 20,207 91,191 — 17,560 20,207 108,751 128,958 ( 20,340 ) 108,618 2011-2022 Winston Salem, NC 844 44,262 21,302 104,549 — 17,004 21,302 121,553 142,855 ( 32,462 ) 110,393 2013-2022 Total Single-family properties in operation 57,878 3,186,462 2,197,233 8,509,431 — 1,618,460 2,197,233 10,127,891 12,325,124 ( 2,386,452 ) 9,938,672 2011-2022 Properties under development & development land — — 541,031 — 538,901 107,289 1,079,932 107,289 1,187,221 — 1,187,221 Total Single-family properties held for sale 1,115 — 51,402 148,681 3,168 38,156 54,570 186,837 241,407 ( 42,691 ) 198,716 2011-2021 Total real estate assets 58,993 $ 3,186,462 $ 2,789,666 $ 8,658,112 $ 542,069 $ 1,763,905 $ 3,331,735 $ 10,422,017 $ 13,753,752 $ ( 2,429,143 ) $ 11,324,609 2011-2022 (1) The unaudited aggregate cost of consolidated real estate in the table above for federal income tax purposes was $ 13.9 billion as of December 31, 2022. F-46 American Homes 4 Rent American Homes 4 Rent, L.P. Schedule III—Real Estate and Accumulated Depreciation as of December 31, 2022 (continued) Change in Total Real Estate Assets for Single-Family Properties in Operation For the Years Ended December 31, (Amounts in thousands) 2022 2021 2020 Balance, beginning of period $ 11,320,426 $ 9,999,821 $ 9,448,381 Acquisitions and building improvements 1,325,231 1,426,921 689,566 Dispositions ( 186,498 ) ( 95,997 ) ( 208,540 ) Write-offs ( 36,614 ) ( 23,916 ) ( 20,843 ) Impairment ( 2,499 ) ( 131 ) ( 1,957 ) Reclassifications to single-family properties held for sale, net of dispositions ( 94,922 ) 13,728 93,214 Balance, end of period $ 12,325,124 $ 11,320,426 $ 9,999,821 Change in Accumulated Depreciation for Single-Family Properties in Operation For the Years Ended December 31, (Amounts in thousands) 2022 2021 2020 Balance, beginning of period $ ( 2,072,933 ) $ ( 1,754,433 ) $ ( 1,462,105 ) Depreciation (1) ( 410,413 ) ( 357,797 ) ( 330,192 ) Dispositions 37,453 14,990 29,433 Write-offs 36,614 23,916 20,843 Reclassifications to single-family properties held for sale, net of dispositions 22,827 391 ( 12,412 ) Balance, end of period $ ( 2,386,452 ) $ ( 2,072,933 ) $ ( 1,754,433 ) (1) Depreciation of buildings and improvements is computed on a straight-line basis over estimated useful lives ranging from three to thirty years . F-47