Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis
Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Cautionary Note on Forward-Looking Statements
Statements included or incorporated by reference herein may constitute “forward-looking statements” within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Forward-looking statements are based on expectations, forecasts, and assumptions by our management and involve a number of risks, uncertainties, and other factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from those stated, including, without limitation:
• Ford’s long-term success depends on delivering the Ford+ plan, including improving cost and competitiveness;
• Ford’s vehicles could be affected by defects that result in recall campaigns, increased warranty costs, or delays in new model launches, and the time it takes to improve the quality of our vehicles and services and reduce the costs associated therewith could continue to have an adverse effect on our business;
• Ford is highly dependent on its suppliers to deliver components in accordance with Ford’s production schedule and specifications, and a shortage of or inability to timely acquire key components or raw materials can disrupt Ford’s production of vehicles;
• Ford’s production, as well as Ford’s suppliers’ production, and/or the ability to deliver products to consumers could be disrupted by labor issues, public health issues, natural or man-made disasters, adverse effects of climate change, financial distress, production difficulties, capacity limitations, or other factors;
• Ford may not realize the anticipated benefits of existing or pending strategic alliances, joint ventures, acquisitions, divestitures, or business strategies or the benefits may take longer than expected to materialize;
• Ford may not realize the anticipated benefits of restructuring actions and such actions may cause Ford to incur significant charges, disrupt our operations, or harm our reputation;
• Failure to develop and deploy secure digital services that appeal to customers and grow our subscription rates could have a negative impact on Ford’s business;
• Ford’s ability to maintain a competitive cost structure could be affected by labor or other constraints;
• Ford’s ability to attract, develop, grow, support, and reward talent is critical to its success and competitiveness;
• Operational information systems, security systems, vehicles, and services could be affected by cybersecurity incidents, ransomware attacks, and other disruptions and impact Ford, Ford Credit, their suppliers, and dealers;
• To facilitate access to the raw materials and other components necessary for the production of electric vehicles, Ford has entered into and may, in the future, enter into multi-year commitments to raw material and other suppliers that subject Ford to risks associated with lower future demand for such items as well as costs that fluctuate and are difficult to accurately forecast;
• With a global footprint and supply chain, Ford’s results and operations could be adversely affected by economic or geopolitical developments, including protectionist trade policies such as tariffs, or other events;
• Ford’s new and existing products and digital, software, and physical services are subject to market acceptance and face significant competition from existing and new entrants in the automotive and digital and software services industries, and Ford’s reputation may be harmed based on positions it takes or if it is unable to achieve the initiatives it has announced;
• Ford may face increased price competition for its products and services, including pricing pressure resulting from industry excess capacity, currency fluctuations, competitive actions, or economic or other factors, particularly for electric vehicles;
• Inflationary pressure and fluctuations in commodity and energy prices, foreign currency exchange rates, interest rates, and market value of Ford or Ford Credit’s investments, including marketable securities, can have a significant effect on results;
• Ford’s results are dependent on sales of larger, more profitable vehicles, particularly in the United States;
• Industry sales volume can be volatile and could decline if there is a financial crisis, recession, public health emergency, or significant geopolitical event;
• The impact of government incentives on Ford’s business could be significant, and Ford’s receipt of government incentives could be subject to reduction, termination, or clawback;
• Ford and Ford Credit’s access to debt, securitization, or derivative markets around the world at competitive rates or in sufficient amounts could be affected by credit rating downgrades, market volatility, market disruption, regulatory requirements, asset portfolios, or other factors;
• Ford Credit could experience higher-than-expected credit losses, lower-than-anticipated residual values, or higher-than-expected return volumes for leased vehicles;
• Economic and demographic experience for pension and OPEB plans (e.g., discount rates or investment returns) could be worse than Ford has assumed;
• Pension and other postretirement liabilities could adversely affect Ford’s liquidity and financial condition;
• Ford and Ford Credit could experience unusual or significant litigation, governmental investigations, or adverse publicity arising out of alleged defects in products, services, perceived environmental impacts, or otherwise;
• Ford may need to substantially modify its product plans and facilities to comply with safety, emissions, fuel economy, autonomous driving technology, environmental, and other regulations;
• Ford and Ford Credit could be affected by the continued development of more stringent privacy, data use, data protection, data access, and artificial intelligence laws and regulations as well as consumers’ heightened expectations to safeguard their personal information; and
• Ford Credit could be subject to new or increased credit regulations, consumer protection regulations, or other regulations.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
We cannot be certain that any expectation, forecast, or assumption made in preparing forward-looking statements will prove accurate, or that any projection will be realized. It is to be expected that there may be differences between projected and actual results. Our forward-looking statements speak only as of the date of their initial issuance, and we do not undertake any obligation to update or revise publicly any forward-looking statement, whether as a result of new information, future events, or otherwise. For additional discussion, see “Item 1A. Risk Factors” above.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
NON-GAAP FINANCIAL MEASURES THAT SUPPLEMENT GAAP MEASURES
We use both generally accepted accounting principles (“GAAP”) and non-GAAP financial measures for operational and financial decision making, and to assess Company and segment business performance. The non-GAAP measures listed below are intended to be considered by users as supplemental information to their equivalent GAAP measures, to aid investors in better understanding our financial results. We believe that these non-GAAP measures provide useful perspective on underlying operating results and trends, and a means to compare our period-over-period results. These non-GAAP measures should not be considered as a substitute for, or superior to, measures of financial performance prepared in accordance with GAAP. These non-GAAP measures may not be the same as similarly titled measures used by other companies due to possible differences in method and in items or events being adjusted.
• Company Adjusted EBIT (Most Comparable GAAP Measure: Net Income/(Loss) Attributable to Ford) – Earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) excludes interest on debt (excl. Ford Credit Debt), taxes, and pre-tax special items. This non-GAAP measure is useful to management and investors because it focuses on underlying operating results and trends, and improves comparability of our period-over-period results. Our management ordinarily excludes special items from its review of the results of the operating segments for purposes of measuring segment profitability and allocating resources. Our categories of pre-tax special items and the applicable significance guideline for each item (which may consist of a group of items related to a single event or action) are as follows:
Pre-Tax Special Item Significance Guideline
∘ Pension and OPEB remeasurement gains and losses ∘ No minimum
∘ Gains and losses on investments in equity securities ∘ No minimum
∘ Personnel expenses, supplier- and dealer-related costs, and facility-related charges stemming from our efforts to match production capacity and cost structure to market demand and changing model mix ∘ Generally $100 million or more
∘ Other items that we do not necessarily consider to be indicative of earnings from ongoing operating activities ∘ $500 million or more for individual field service actions; generally $100 million or more for other items
When we provide guidance for adjusted EBIT, we do not provide guidance on a net income basis because the GAAP measure will include potentially significant special items that have not yet occurred and are difficult to predict with reasonable certainty, including gains and losses on pension and OPEB remeasurements and on investments in equity securities.
• Company Adjusted EBIT Margin (Most Comparable GAAP Measure: Company Net Income/(Loss) Margin) – Company adjusted EBIT margin is Company adjusted EBIT divided by Company revenue. This non-GAAP measure is useful to management and investors because it allows users to evaluate our operating results aligned with industry reporting.
• Adjusted Earnings/(Loss) Per Share (Most Comparable GAAP Measure: Earnings/(Loss) Per Share) – Measure of Company’s diluted net earnings/(loss) per share adjusted for impact of pre-tax special items (described above), tax special items, and restructuring impacts in noncontrolling interests. The measure provides investors with useful information to evaluate performance of our business excluding items not indicative of earnings from ongoing operating activities. When we provide guidance for adjusted earnings/(loss) per share, we do not provide guidance on an earnings/(loss) per share basis because the GAAP measure will include potentially significant special items that have not yet occurred and are difficult to predict with reasonable certainty prior to year-end, including pension and OPEB remeasurement gains and losses.
• Adjusted Effective Tax Rate (Most Comparable GAAP Measure: Effective Tax Rate) – Measure of Company’s tax rate excluding pre-tax special items (described above) and tax special items. The measure provides an ongoing effective rate which investors find useful for historical comparisons and for forecasting. When we provide guidance for adjusted effective tax rate, we do not provide guidance on an effective tax rate basis because the GAAP measure will include potentially significant special items that have not yet occurred and are difficult to predict with reasonable certainty prior to year-end, including pension and OPEB remeasurement gains and losses.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
• Company Adjusted Free Cash Flow (Most Comparable GAAP Measure: Net Cash Provided By/(Used In) Operating Activities) – Measure of Company’s operating cash flow excluding Ford Credit’s operating cash flows. The measure contains elements management considers operating activities, including Company excluding Ford Credit capital spending, Ford Credit distributions to its parent, and settlement of derivatives. The measure excludes cash outflows for funded pension contributions, restructuring actions, and other items that are considered operating cash flows under U.S. GAAP. This measure is useful to management and investors because it is consistent with management’s assessment of the Company’s operating cash flow performance. When we provide guidance for Company adjusted free cash flow, we do not provide guidance for net cash provided by/(used in) operating activities because the GAAP measure will include items that are difficult to quantify or predict with reasonable certainty, including cash flows related to the Company's exposures to foreign currency exchange rates and certain commodity prices (separate from any related hedges), Ford Credit's operating cash flows, and cash flows related to special items, including separation payments, each of which individually or in the aggregate could have a significant impact to our net cash provided by/(used in) our operating activities.
• Adjusted ROIC – Calculated as the sum of adjusted net operating profit/(loss) after cash tax from the last four quarters, divided by the average invested capital over the last four quarters. Adjusted Return on Invested Capital (“Adjusted ROIC”) provides management and investors with useful information to evaluate the Company’s after-cash tax operating return on its invested capital for the period presented. Adjusted net operating profit/(loss) after cash tax measures operating results less special items, interest on debt (excl. Ford Credit Debt), and certain pension/OPEB costs. Average invested capital is the sum of average balance sheet equity, debt (excl. Ford Credit Debt), and net pension/OPEB liability.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
NON-GAAP FINANCIAL MEASURE RECONCILIATIONS
The following tables show our Non-GAAP financial measure reconciliations.
Net Income/(Loss) Reconciliation to Adjusted EBIT ($M)
2022 2023 2024
Net income/(loss) attributable to Ford (GAAP) $ (1,981) $ 4,347 $ 5,879
Income/(Loss) attributable to noncontrolling interests (171) (18) 15
Net income/(loss) $ (2,152) $ 4,329 $ 5,894
Less: (Provision for)/Benefit from income taxes (a) 864 362 (1,339)
Income/(Loss) before income taxes $ (3,016) $ 3,967 $ 7,233
Less: Special items pre-tax (12,172) (5,147) (1,860)
Income/(Loss) before special items pre-tax $ 9,156 $ 9,114 $ 9,093
Less: Interest on debt (1,259) (1,302) (1,115)
Adjusted EBIT (Non-GAAP) $ 10,415 $ 10,416 $ 10,208
Memo:
Revenue ($B) $ 158.1 $ 176.2 $ 185.0
Net income/(loss) margin (%) (1.3) % 2.5 % 3.2 %
Adjusted EBIT margin (%) 6.6 % 5.9 % 5.5 %
_________
(a) 2022 reflects the tax consequences of unrealized losses on marketable securities and favorable changes in our valuation allowances; 2023 reflects benefits from U.S. research tax credits and legal entity restructuring within our leasing operations and China.
Earnings/(Loss) per Share Reconciliation to Adjusted Earnings/(Loss) per Share
2022 2023 2024
Diluted After-Tax Results ($M)
Diluted after-tax results (GAAP) $ (1,981) $ 4,347 $ 5,879
Less: Impact of pre-tax and tax special items (a) (9,599) (3,786) (1,537)
Adjusted net income/(loss) - diluted (Non-GAAP) $ 7,618 $ 8,133 $ 7,416
Basic and Diluted Shares (M)
Basic shares (average shares outstanding) 4,014 3,998 3,978
Net dilutive options, unvested restricted stock units, unvested restricted stock shares, and convertible debt 42 43 43
Diluted shares 4,056 4,041 4,021
Earnings/(Loss) per share - diluted (GAAP) (b) $ (0.49) $ 1.08 $ 1.46
Less: Net impact of adjustments (2.37) (0.93) (0.38)
Adjusted earnings per share - diluted (Non-GAAP) $ 1.88 $ 2.01 $ 1.84
_________
(a) Includes adjustment for noncontrolling interest in 2023.
(b) In 2022, there were 42 million shares excluded from the calculation of diluted earnings/(loss) per share due to their anti-dilutive effect.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Effective Tax Rate Reconciliation to Adjusted Effective Tax Rate
2022 2023 2024
Pre-Tax Results ($M)
Income/(Loss) before income taxes (GAAP) $ (3,016) $ 3,967 $ 7,233
Less: Impact of special items (12,172) (5,147) (1,860)
Adjusted earnings before taxes (Non-GAAP) $ 9,156 $ 9,114 $ 9,093
Taxes ($M)
(Provision for)/Benefit from income taxes (GAAP) (a) $ 864 $ 362 $ (1,339)
Less: Impact of special items (b) 2,573 1,273 323
Adjusted (provision for)/benefit from income taxes (Non-GAAP) $ (1,709) $ (911) $ (1,662)
Tax Rate (%)
Effective tax rate (GAAP) (a) 28.6 % (9.1) % 18.5 %
Adjusted effective tax rate (Non-GAAP) 18.7 % 10.0 % 18.3 %
_________
(a) 2023 reflects benefits from U.S. research tax credits and legal entity restructuring within our leasing operations and China.
(b) 2022 reflects the tax consequences of unrealized losses on marketable securities and favorable changes in our valuation allowances; 2023 reflects benefits from China legal entity restructuring.
Net Cash Provided by/(Used in) Operating Activities Reconciliation to Company Adjusted Free Cash Flow ($M)
2022 2023 2024
Net cash provided by/(used in) operating activities (GAAP) $ 6,853 $ 14,918 $ 15,423
Less: Items not included in Company Adjusted Free Cash Flows
Ford Credit operating cash flows $ (5,416) $ 1,180 $ 3,600
Funded pension contributions (567) (592) (1,073)
Restructuring (including separations) (a) (835) (1,025) (799)
Ford Credit tax payments/(refunds) under tax sharing agreement 147 169 (15)
Other, net (58) 240 (877)
Add: Items included in Company Adjusted Free Cash Flows
Company excluding Ford Credit capital spending $ (6,511) $ (8,152) $ (8,590)
Ford Credit distributions 2,100 — 500
Settlement of derivatives (90) 7 175
Company adjusted free cash flow (Non-GAAP) $ 9,081 $ 6,801 $ 6,672
__________
(a) Restructuring excludes cash flows reported in investing activities.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
2024 SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
The tables below provide supplemental consolidating financial information and other financial information. Company excluding Ford Credit includes our Ford Blue, Ford Model e, Ford Pro, and Ford Next reportable segments, Corporate Other, Interest on Debt, and Special Items. Eliminations, where presented, primarily represent eliminations of intersegment transactions and deferred tax netting.
Selected Income Statement Information. The following table provides supplemental income statement information (in millions):
For the Year Ended December 31, 2024
Company excluding Ford Credit Ford Credit Consolidated
Revenues $ 172,706 $ 12,286 $ 184,992
Total costs and expenses 168,721 11,052 179,773
Operating income/(loss) 3,985 1,234 5,219
Interest expense on Company debt excluding Ford Credit 1,115 — 1,115
Other income/(loss), net 2,073 378 2,451
Equity in net income/(loss) of affiliated companies 636 42 678
Income/(Loss) before income taxes 5,579 1,654 7,233
Provision for/(Benefit from) income taxes 941 398 1,339
Net income/(loss) 4,638 1,256 5,894
Less: Income/(Loss) attributable to noncontrolling interests 15 — 15
Net income/(loss) attributable to Ford Motor Company $ 4,623 $ 1,256 $ 5,879
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Selected Balance Sheet Information. The following tables provide supplemental balance sheet information (in millions):
December 31, 2024
Assets Company excluding
Ford Credit Ford Credit Eliminations Consolidated
Cash and cash equivalents $ 13,663 $ 9,272 $ — $ 22,935
Marketable securities 14,707 706 — 15,413
Ford Credit finance receivables, net — 51,850 — 51,850
Trade and other receivables, net 5,868 8,855 — 14,723
Inventories 14,951 — — 14,951
Other assets 3,339 1,263 — 4,602
Receivable from other segments 1,134 2,285 (3,419) —
Total current assets 53,662 74,231 (3,419) 124,474
Ford Credit finance receivables, net — 59,786 — 59,786
Net investment in operating leases 1,258 21,689 — 22,947
Net property 41,645 283 — 41,928
Equity in net assets of affiliated companies 6,691 130 — 6,821
Deferred income taxes 16,196 178 1 16,375
Other assets 11,628 1,237 — 12,865
Receivable from other segments 74 — (74) —
Total assets $ 131,154 $ 157,534 $ (3,492) $ 285,196
Liabilities
Payables $ 23,167 $ 961 $ — $ 24,128
Other liabilities and deferred revenue 24,963 2,819 — 27,782
Company excluding Ford Credit debt payable within one year 1,756 — — 1,756
Ford Credit debt payable within one year — 53,193 — 53,193
Payable to other segments 3,394 25 (3,419) —
Total current liabilities 53,280 56,998 (3,419) 106,859
Other liabilities and deferred revenue 27,165 1,667 — 28,832
Company excluding Ford Credit long-term debt 18,898 — — 18,898
Ford Credit long-term debt — 84,675 — 84,675
Deferred income taxes 709 364 1 1,074
Payable to other segments — 74 (74) —
Total liabilities $ 100,052 $ 143,778 $ (3,492) $ 240,338
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Selected Cash Flow Information. The following tables provide supplemental cash flow information (in millions):
For the Year Ended December 31, 2024
Cash flows from operating activities Company excluding Ford Credit Ford Credit Eliminations Consolidated
Net income/(loss) $ 4,638 $ 1,256 $ — $ 5,894
Depreciation and tooling amortization 5,038 2,529 — 7,567
Other amortization 39 (1,739) — (1,700)
Provision for credit and insurance losses 13 562 — 575
Pension and OPEB expense/(income) 149 — — 149
Equity method investment (earnings)/losses and impairments in excess of dividends received (277) (10) — (287)
Foreign currency adjustments 317 (90) — 227
Net realized and unrealized (gains)/losses on cash equivalents, marketable securities, and other investments 45 (3) — 42
Stock compensation 493 18 — 511
Provision for/(Benefit from) deferred income taxes 74 276 — 350
Decrease/(Increase) in finance receivables (wholesale and other) — (4,299) — (4,299)
Decrease/(Increase) in intersegment receivables/payables 529 (529) — —
Decrease/(Increase) in accounts receivable and other assets (2,230) (267) — (2,497)
Decrease/(Increase) in inventory 27 — — 27
Increase/(Decrease) in accounts payable and accrued and other liabilities
8,106 319 — 8,425
Other 211 228 — 439
Interest supplements and residual value support to Ford Credit
(5,349) 5,349 — —
Net cash provided by/(used in) operating activities $ 11,823 $ 3,600 $ — $ 15,423
Cash flows from investing activities
Capital spending $ (8,590) $ (94) $ — $ (8,684)
Acquisitions of finance receivables and operating leases — (59,720) — (59,720)
Collections of finance receivables and operating leases — 45,159 — 45,159
Purchases of marketable securities and other investments (12,026) (274) — (12,300)
Sales and maturities of marketable securities and other investments 11,990 356 — 12,346
Settlements of derivatives 175 (443) — (268)
Capital contributions to equity method investments (2,323) — — (2,323)
Returns of capital from equity method investments 1,465 — — 1,465
Other (45) — — (45)
Investing activity (to)/from other segments 500 4 (504) —
Net cash provided by/(used in) investing activities $ (8,854) $ (15,012) $ (504) $ (24,370)
Cash flows from financing activities
Cash payments for dividends and dividend equivalents $ (3,118) $ — $ — $ (3,118)
Purchases of common stock (426) — — (426)
Net changes in short-term debt 519 (795) — (276)
Proceeds from issuance of long-term debt 110 57,202 — 57,312
Payments on long-term debt (152) (45,528) — (45,680)
Other (192) (135) — (327)
Financing activity to/(from) other segments (4) (500) 504 —
Net cash provided by/(used in) financing activities $ (3,263) $ 10,244 $ 504 $ 7,485
Effect of exchange rate changes on cash, cash equivalents, and restricted cash $ (191) $ (267) $ — $ (458)
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Selected Other Information.
Equity. At December 31, 2023, total equity attributable to Ford was $42.8 billion, a decrease of $0.4 billion compared with December 31, 2022. At December 31, 2024, total equity attributable to Ford was $44.8 billion, an increase of $2.1 billion compared with December 31, 2023. The detail for the changes is shown below (in billions):
2023 vs 2022 Increase/
(Decrease)
2024 vs 2023 Increase/
(Decrease)
Net income/(loss) $ 4.3 $ 5.9
Shareholder distributions (a) (5.4) (3.6)
Other comprehensive income/(loss) 0.3 (0.6)
Adoption of accounting standards — —
Common stock issued (including share-based compensation impacts) 0.4 0.4
Total $ (0.4) $ 2.1
________
(a) Includes cash dividends, dividend equivalents, and anti-dilutive share repurchases.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
CRITICAL ACCOUNTING ESTIMATES
We consider an accounting estimate to be critical if: (1) the accounting estimate requires us to make assumptions about matters that were highly uncertain at the time the accounting estimate was made, and (2) changes in the estimate that are reasonably likely to occur from period to period, or use of different estimates that we reasonably could have used in the current period, would have a material impact on our financial condition or results of operations.
Management has discussed the development and selection of these critical accounting estimates with the Audit Committee of our Board of Directors. In addition, there are other items within our financial statements that require estimation, but are not deemed critical as defined above. Changes in estimates used in these and other items could have a material impact on our financial statements.
Warranties and Field Service Actions
Nature of Estimates Required. We provide base warranties on the products we sell for specific periods of time and/or mileage, which vary depending upon the type of product and the geographic location of its sale. Separately, we also periodically perform field service actions related to safety recalls, emission recalls, and other product campaigns. Software updates are increasingly a component of vehicle service and may be performed during warranty coverage repairs, through field service actions, or through over-the-air updates. We accrue the estimated cost of both base warranty coverages and field service actions at the time of sale. In addition, from time to time, we issue extended warranties at our expense, the estimated cost of which is accrued at the time of issuance.
Assumptions and Approach Used. We establish our estimate of base warranty obligations using a patterned estimation model. We use historical information regarding the nature, frequency, and average cost of claims for each vehicle line by model year. We reevaluate our estimate of base warranty obligations on a regular basis. Experience has shown that initial data for any given model year may be volatile; therefore, our process relies on long-term historical averages until sufficient data are available. With actual experience, we use the data to update the historical averages. We then compare the resulting accruals with present spending rates to assess whether the balances are adequate to meet expected future obligations. Based on this data, we update our estimates as necessary.
Field service actions may occur in periods beyond the base warranty coverage period. We establish our estimates of field service action obligations using a patterned estimation model. We use historical information regarding the nature, frequency, severity, and average cost of claims for each model year. We assess our obligation for field service actions on a regular basis using actual claims experience and update our estimates as necessary.
Due to the uncertainty and potential volatility of the factors used in establishing our estimates, changes in our assumptions could materially affect our financial condition and results of operations. See Note 24 of the Notes to the Financial Statements for information regarding warranty and field service action costs.
Pensions and Other Postretirement Employee Benefits
Nature of Estimates Required. The estimation of our defined benefit pension and OPEB plan obligations and expenses requires that we utilize the calculated present value of the projected future payments to all participants, taking into consideration valuation assumptions specific to each plan. Plan obligations and expenses are based on existing retirement plan provisions. No assumption is made regarding any potential future changes to benefit provisions beyond those to which we are presently committed (e.g., in existing labor contracts).
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Assumptions and Approach Used. The assumptions used in developing the required estimates include the following key factors:
• Discount rates. Our discount rate assumptions are based primarily on the results of cash flow matching analyses, which match the future cash outflows for each major plan to a yield curve based on high-quality bonds specific to the country of the plan. Benefit payments are discounted at the rates on the curve to determine the year-end obligations.
• Expected long-term rate of return on plan assets. Our expected long-term rate of return considers inputs from a range of advisors for capital market returns, adjusted for specific aspects of our investment strategy by plan. Historical returns also are considered when appropriate. The assumption is based on consideration of all inputs, with a focus on long-term trends to avoid short-term market influences.
• Salary growth. Our salary growth assumption reflects our actual experience, long-term outlook, and assumed inflation.
• Inflation. Our inflation assumption is based on an evaluation of external market indicators, including real gross domestic product growth and central bank inflation targets.
• Expected contributions. Our expected amount and timing of contributions are based on an assessment of minimum requirements, cash availability, and other considerations (e.g., funded status, avoidance of regulatory premiums and levies, and tax efficiency).
• Retirement rates. Retirement rates are developed to reflect actual and projected plan experience.
• Mortality rates. Mortality rates are developed to reflect actual and projected plan experience.
• Health care cost trends . Our health care cost trend assumptions are developed based on historical cost data, the near-term outlook, and an assessment of likely long-term trends.
Assumptions are set at each year-end and are generally not changed during the year unless there is a major plan event, such as a curtailment or settlement that would trigger a plan remeasurement.
See Note 16 of the Notes to the Financial Statements for more information regarding pension and OPEB costs and assumptions.
Pension Plans
Effect of Actual Results . The year-end 2024 weighted average discount rate was 5.65% for U.S. plans and 4.51% for non-U.S. plans, reflecting increases of 48 and 53 basis points, respectively, compared with year-end 2023. Higher discount rates lowered the valuations of U.S. and non-U.S. plans. In 2024, the U.S. actual return on assets was 0.08%, which was lower than the expected long-term rate of return of 5.93%. Non-U.S. actual return on assets was 2.77%, which was lower than the expected long-term rate of return of 4.53%. The lower returns are explained primarily by lower returns on fixed income assets given the increase in long-term interest rates. In total, higher discount rates, partially offset by asset returns lower than our assumptions, resulted in a net remeasurement gain of $575 million. This gain has been recognized within net periodic benefit cost and reported as a special item.
For 2025, the expected long-term rate of return on assets is 6.37% for U.S. plans, up 44 basis points from 2024, and 5.23% for non-U.S. plans, up 70 basis points compared with a year ago, reflecting higher expected capital market return assumptions, including increased long-term interest rates.
De-risking Strategy . We employ a broad de-risking strategy for our global funded plans that increases the matching characteristics of our assets relative to our obligation as funded status improves. Changes in interest rates, which directly influence changes in discount rates, in addition to other factors have a significant impact on the value of our pension obligation and fixed income asset portfolio. Our de-risking strategy has increased the allocation to fixed income investments and reduced our funded status sensitivity to changes in interest rates. Changes in interest rates should result in offsetting effects in the value of our pension obligation and the value of the fixed income asset portfolio.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Sensitivity Analysis. The December 31, 2024 pension funded status and 2025 expense are affected by year-end 2024 assumptions. Sensitivities to these assumptions may be asymmetric and are specific to the time periods noted. The effects of changes in the factors that generally have the largest impact on year-end funded status and pension expense are discussed below.
Discount rates and interest rates have the largest impact on our obligations and fixed income assets. The table below estimates the effect on our funded status of an increase/decrease in discount rates and interest rates (in millions):
Basis
Point Change Increase/(Decrease) in
December 31, 2024 Funded Status
Factor U.S. Plans Non-U.S. Plans
Discount rate - obligation +/- 100 bps $2,500/$(3,000) $2,300/$(2,800)
Interest rate - fixed income assets +/- 100 (2,400)/2,800 (1,700)/2,100
Net impact on funded status $100/$(200) $600/$(700)
The fixed income asset sensitivity shown excludes other fixed income return components (e.g., changes in credit spreads, bond coupon and active management excess returns), and growth asset returns. Other factors that affect net funded status (e.g., contributions) are not reflected.
Interest rates and the expected long-term rate of return on assets have the largest effect on pension expense. These assumptions are generally set at each year-end for expense recorded throughout the following year. The table below estimates the effect on pension expense of a higher/lower assumption for these factors (in millions):
Basis
Point Change Increase/(Decrease) in
2025 Pension Expense
Factor U.S. Plans Non-U.S. Plans
Interest rate - service cost and interest cost +/- 25 bps $25/$(25) $15/$(15)
Expected long-term rate of return on assets +/- 25 (70)/70 (50)/50
The effect of changing multiple factors simultaneously cannot be calculated by combining the individual sensitivities. The sensitivity of pension expense to a change in discount rate assumptions may not be linear.
Other Postretirement Employee Benefits
Effect of Actual Results . The weighted average discount rate used to determine the benefit obligation for worldwide OPEB plans at December 31, 2024 was 5.46%, compared with 5.10% at December 31, 2023, resulting in a worldwide net remeasurement gain of $112 million, which has been recognized within net periodic benefit cost and reported as a special item.
Sensitivity Analysis. Discount rates and interest rates have the largest effect on our OPEB obligation and expense. The table below estimates the effect on 2025 OPEB expense of higher/lower assumptions for these factors (in millions):
Worldwide OPEB
Basis
Point Change (Increase)/Decrease
2024 YE Obligation Increase/(Decrease)
2025 Expense
Factor
Discount rate - obligation +/- 100 bps $400/$(475) N/A
Interest rate - service cost and interest cost +/- 25 N/A $5/$(5)
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Income Taxes
Nature of Estimates Required. We must make estimates and apply judgment in determining the provision for income taxes for financial reporting purposes. We make these estimates and judgments primarily in the following areas: (i) the calculation of tax credits, (ii) the calculation of differences in the timing of recognition of revenue and expense for tax reporting and financial statement purposes, as well as (iii) the calculation of interest and penalties related to uncertain tax positions. Changes in these estimates and judgments may result in a material increase or decrease to our tax provision, which would be recorded in the period in which the change occurs.
Assumptions and Approach Used. We are subject to the income tax laws and regulations of the many jurisdictions in which we operate. These tax laws and regulations are complex and involve uncertainties in the application to our facts and circumstances that may be open to interpretation. We recognize benefits for these uncertain tax positions based upon a process that requires judgment regarding the technical application of the laws, regulations, and various related judicial opinions. If, in our judgment, it is more likely than not (defined as a likelihood of more than 50%) that the uncertain tax position will be settled favorably for us, we estimate an amount that ultimately will be realized. This process is inherently subjective since it requires our assessment of the probability of future outcomes. We evaluate these uncertain tax positions on a quarterly basis, including consideration of changes in facts and circumstances, such as new regulations or recent judicial opinions, as well as the status of audit activities by taxing authorities. Changes to our estimate of the amount to be realized are recorded in our provision for income taxes during the period in which the change occurred.
We must also assess the likelihood that we will be able to recover our deferred tax assets against future sources of taxable income and reduce the carrying amount of deferred tax assets by recording a valuation allowance if, based on all available evidence, it is more likely than not that all or a portion of such assets will not be realized.
This assessment, which is completed on a taxing jurisdiction basis, takes into account various types of evidence, including the following:
• Nature, frequency, and severity of current and cumulative financial reporting losses. A pattern of objectively measured recent financial reporting losses is heavily weighted as a source of negative evidence. We generally consider cumulative pre-tax losses in the three-year period ending with the current quarter to be significant negative evidence regarding future profitability. We also consider the strength and trend of earnings, as well as other relevant factors. In certain circumstances, historical information may not be as relevant due to changes in our business operations;
• Sources of future taxable income. Future reversals of existing temporary differences are heavily weighted sources of objectively verifiable positive evidence. Projections of future taxable income exclusive of reversing temporary differences are a source of positive evidence only when the projections are combined with a history of recent profits and can be reasonably estimated. Otherwise, these projections are considered inherently subjective and generally will not be sufficient to overcome negative evidence that includes relevant cumulative losses in recent years, particularly if the projected future taxable income is dependent on an anticipated turnaround to profitability that has not yet been achieved. In such cases, we generally give these projections of future taxable income no weight for the purposes of our valuation allowance assessment; and
• Tax planning strategies. If necessary and available, tax planning strategies could be implemented to accelerate taxable amounts to utilize expiring carryforwards. These strategies would be a source of additional positive evidence and, depending on their nature, could be heavily weighted.
In assessing the realizability of deferred tax assets, we consider the trade-offs between cash preservation and cash outlays to preserve tax credits. We presently believe that global valuation allowances of $3.9 billion are required and that we ultimately will recover the remaining $15.3 billion of deferred tax assets. However, realization of our deferred tax assets is impacted by a number of variables, including future profitability within relevant tax jurisdictions, tax law changes, and tax planning and the related effects on our cash and liquidity position. Accordingly, our valuation allowances may increase or decrease in future periods.
For additional information regarding income taxes, see Note 7 of the Notes to the Financial Statements.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Impairment of Long-Lived Assets
Asset groups are tested at the level of the smallest identifiable group of assets that generate cash flows that are largely independent of the cash flows from other assets or groups of assets. Asset groupings for impairment analysis are reevaluated when events occur, such as changes in organizational structure and management reporting. Our asset groups for 2024 were: Ford Blue North America, Ford Blue Europe, Ford Blue Rest of World, Ford Model e, Ford Pro, Ford Credit, and Ford Next.
Nature of Estimates Required - Held-and-Used Long-Lived Assets. We test our long-lived asset groups when changes in circumstances indicate their carrying value may not be recoverable. Events that trigger a test for recoverability include:
• Material adverse changes in projected revenues or expenses, present negative cash flows combined with a history of negative cash flows and a forecast that demonstrates significant continuing losses
• Adverse change in legal factors or significant negative industry or regulatory trends (such as overcrowding of market offerings or changes in regulations, resulting in excess capacity relative to market demand)
• Current expectation that a long-lived asset group will be disposed of significantly before the end of its useful life
• Significant adverse change in the manner in which an asset group is used or in its physical condition
• Significant change in the asset grouping
In addition, investing in new or emerging products (e.g., EVs) or services (e.g., connectivity) may require substantial upfront capital, which may result in initial forecasted negative cash flows in the near term. In these instances, near-term negative cash flows on their own may not be indicative of a triggering event for evaluation of impairment. In such circumstances, we also conduct a qualitative evaluation of the business growth trajectory, which includes updating our assessment of when positive cash flows are expected to be generated, confirming whether established milestones are being achieved, and assessing our ability and intent to continue to access required funding to execute the plan. If this evaluation indicates a triggering event has occurred, a test for recoverability is performed.
When a triggering event occurs, a test for recoverability is performed, comparing projected undiscounted future cash flows to the carrying value of the asset group. If the undiscounted forecasted cash flows are less than the carrying value of the assets, the asset group’s fair value is measured relying primarily on a discounted cash flow method. To the extent available, we will also consider third-party valuations of our long-lived assets that may have been prepared for other business purposes. An impairment charge is recognized for the amount by which the carrying value of the asset group exceeds its estimated fair value. When an impairment loss is recognized for assets to be held and used, the adjusted carrying amounts of those assets are depreciated over their remaining useful life.
Nature of Estimates Required - Held-for-Sale Operations. We perform an impairment test on a disposal group to be discontinued, held for sale, or otherwise disposed of when we have committed to an action and the action is expected to be completed within one year. We estimate fair value to approximate the expected proceeds to be received, less cost to sell, and compare it to the carrying value of the disposal group. An impairment charge is recognized when the carrying value exceeds the estimated fair value. We also assess fair value if circumstances arise that were considered unlikely and, as a result, we decide not to sell a disposal group previously classified as held for sale upon reclassification to held and used. When there is a change to a plan of sale, and the assets are reclassified from held for sale to held and used, the long-lived assets are reported at the lower of (i) the carrying amount before a held-for-sale designation, adjusted for depreciation that would have been recognized if the assets had not been classified as held for sale, or (ii) the fair value at the date the assets no longer satisfy the criteria for classification as held for sale.
Assumptions and Approach Used - Held-and-Used Long-Lived Assets. The fair value of an asset group is determined from the perspective of a market participant. Considerations include appropriate discount rates, valuation techniques, the most advantageous market, and assumptions about the highest and best use of the asset group.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
We measure the fair value of an asset group based on market prices (i.e., the amount for which the asset could be sold to a third party) when available. When market prices are not available, we generally estimate the fair value of the asset group using the income approach and/or the market approach. The income approach uses cash flow projections. Inherent in our development of cash flow projections are assumptions and estimates derived from a review of our operating results, business plan forecasts, expected growth rates, and cost of capital, similar to those a market participant would use to assess fair value. We also make certain assumptions about future economic conditions and other data. Many of the factors used in assessing fair value are outside the control of management, and these assumptions and estimates may change in future periods.
Changes in assumptions or estimates can materially affect the fair value measurement of an asset group and, therefore, can affect the test results. The following are key assumptions we use in making cash flow projections:
• Business projections. We make assumptions about the demand for our products in the marketplace. These
assumptions drive our planning assumptions for volume, mix, and pricing. We also make assumptions about our cost levels (e.g., capacity utilization, cost performance). These projections are derived using our internal business plan forecasts that are updated at least annually and reviewed by our Board of Directors.
• Long-term growth rate. A growth rate is used to calculate the terminal value of the business and is added to the present value of the debt-free interim cash flows. The growth rate is the expected rate at which an asset group’s earnings stream is projected to grow beyond the planning period.
• Discount rate. When measuring possible impairment, future cash flows are discounted at a rate that is consistent with a weighted-average cost of capital that we anticipate a potential market participant would use. Weighted-average cost of capital is an estimate of the overall risk-adjusted pre-tax rate of return expected by equity and debt holders of a business enterprise.
• Economic projections. Assumptions regarding general economic conditions are included in and affect our assumptions regarding industry sales and pricing estimates for our vehicles. These macroeconomic assumptions include, but are not limited to, industry sales volumes, inflation, interest rates, prices of raw materials (e.g., commodities), and foreign currency exchange rates.
The market approach is another method for measuring the fair value of an asset group. This approach relies on the market value (i.e., market capitalization) of companies that are engaged in the same or a similar line of business as the asset group being evaluated. In addition, to the extent available, we also consider third-party valuations that may have been prepared for other business purposes.
During 2024, no triggering events were identified.
Assumptions and Approach Used - Held-for-sale Operations. In the first quarter of 2024, we entered into an agreement to sell 100% of our equity interest in Ford Sales and Service Korea Company (“FSSK”), and the assets and liabilities of the entity were classified as held for sale. However, as of December 31, 2024, FSSK no longer met the held-for-sale criteria as that sale transaction did not close and is no longer probable of occurring. Accordingly, FSSK’s assets and liabilities were reclassified and reported as held and used as of December 31, 2024. In the third quarter of 2024, we entered into an agreement to sell 100% of our equity interest in Ford Motor Company A/S, our national sales company in Denmark. The entity was classified as held for sale in the fourth quarter of 2024 once all held-for-sale criteria were met. Accordingly, as of December 31, 2024, the assets and liabilities of Ford Motor Company A/S were reported as held for sale. We determined that the assets of both FSSK and Ford Motor Company A/S, which were not material, were not impaired. See Note 21 of the Notes to the Financial Statements for more information regarding held-for-sale operations.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Allowance for Credit Losses
The allowance for credit losses represents Ford Credit’s estimate of the expected lifetime credit losses inherent in finance receivables as of the balance sheet date. The adequacy of Ford Credit’s allowance for credit losses is assessed quarterly, and the assumptions and models used in establishing the allowance are evaluated regularly. Because credit losses can vary substantially over time, estimating credit losses requires a number of assumptions about matters that are uncertain. Changes in assumptions affect Ford Credit interest, operating, and other expenses on our consolidated income statements and the allowance for credit losses contained within Ford Credit finance receivables, net on our consolidated balance sheets. See Note 10 of the Notes to the Financial Statements for more information regarding allowance for credit losses.
Nature of Estimates Required. Ford Credit estimates the allowance for credit losses for receivables that share similar risk characteristics based on a collective assessment using a combination of measurement models and management judgment. The models consider factors such as historical trends in credit losses, recent portfolio performance, and forward-looking macroeconomic conditions. The models vary by portfolio and receivable type including consumer finance receivables, wholesale loans, and dealer loans. If Ford Credit does not believe the models reflect lifetime expected credit losses for the portfolio, an adjustment is made to reflect management judgment regarding qualitative factors, including economic uncertainty, observable changes in portfolio performance, and other relevant factors.
Assumptions Used. Ford Credit’s allowance for credit losses is based on its assumptions regarding:
• Probability of default . The expected probability of payment and time to default, which include assumptions about macroeconomic factors and recent performance.
• Loss given default. The percentage of the expected balance due at default that is not recoverable. The loss given default takes into account expected collateral value and future recoveries.
Macroeconomic factors used in Ford Credit’s models are country specific and include variables such as unemployment rates, personal bankruptcy filings, housing prices, and gross domestic product.
Sensitivity Analysis. Changes in the probability of default and loss given default assumptions would affect the allowance for credit losses. The effect of the indicated increase/decrease in the assumptions for Ford Credit’s U.S. Ford and Lincoln retail financing portfolio at December 31, 2024 is as follows (in millions):
Assumption Basis Point Change
Increase/(Decrease) in Allowance for Credit Losses
Probability of default (lifetime) +/- 100 bps $250/$(250)
Loss given default +/- 100 15/(15)
Accumulated Depreciation on Vehicles Subject to Operating Leases
Accumulated depreciation on vehicles subject to operating leases reduces the value of the leased vehicles in Ford Credit’s operating lease portfolio from their original acquisition value to their expected residual value at the end of the lease term.
Ford Credit monitors residual values each month, and it reviews the adequacy of accumulated depreciation on a quarterly basis. If Ford Credit believes that the expected residual values for its vehicles have changed, it revises depreciation to ensure that net investment in operating leases (equal to the acquisition value of the vehicles less accumulated depreciation) will be adjusted to reflect Ford Credit’s revised estimate of the expected residual value at the end of the lease term. Adjustments to depreciation expense result in a change in the depreciation rates of the vehicles subject to operating leases and are recorded prospectively on a straight-line basis.
Generally, lease customers have the option to buy the leased vehicle at the end of the lease or to return the vehicle to the dealer.
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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (Continued)
Nature of Estimates Required. Each operating lease in Ford Credit’s portfolio represents a vehicle it owns that has been leased to a customer. At the time Ford Credit purchases a lease, it establishes an expected residual value for the vehicle. Ford Credit estimates the expected residual value by evaluating recent auction values, return volumes for Ford Credit’s leased vehicles, industrywide used vehicle prices, marketing incentive plans, and vehicle quality data and benchmarks to third-party data depending on availability. Similar factors are considered in the third-party data Ford Credit uses to revise its estimate of the expected residual value during the lease term.
Assumptions Used. Ford Credit’s accumulated depreciation on vehicles subject to operating leases is based on assumptions regarding:
• Auction value. Ford Credit’s projection of the market value of the vehicles when sold at the end of the lease; and
• Return volume. Ford Credit’s projection of the number of vehicles that will be returned at lease-end.
See Note 12 of the Notes to the Financial Statements for more information regarding accumulated depreciation on vehicles subject to operating leases.
Sensitivity Analysis. For returned vehicles, Ford Credit faces a risk that the amount it obtains from the vehicle sold at auction will be less than its estimate of the expected residual value for the vehicle. The impact of the change in assumptions on future auction values and return volumes would increase or decrease accumulated supplemental depreciation and depreciation expense over the remaining terms of the operating leases; however, the impact may be tempered or exacerbated based on future auction values in relation to the purchase price specified in the lease contract. A change in the assumption for an auction value will impact Ford Credit’s estimate of accumulated supplemental depreciation if the future auction value is lower than the purchase price specified in the lease contract. The effect of the indicated increase/decrease in the assumptions for Ford Credit’s U.S. Ford and Lincoln brand operating lease portfolio at December 31, 2024 is as follows (in millions):
Assumption Basis Point
Change
Increase/(Decrease) in Projected Lifetime Depreciation
Future auction values +/- 100 bps $(50)/$50
Return volumes +/- 100 5/(5)
Adjustments to the amount of accumulated supplemental depreciation on operating leases are reflected on our balance sheets as Net investment in operating leases and on our income statements in Ford Credit interest, operating, and other expenses.
ACCOUNTING STANDARDS ISSUED BUT NOT YET ADOPTED
For a discussion of recent accounting standards, see Note 3 of the Notes to the Financial Statements.
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ITEM 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk
OVERVIEW
We are exposed to a variety of market and other risks, including the effects of changes in foreign currency exchange rates, commodity prices, and interest rates, as well as risks to availability of funding sources, hazard events, and specific asset risks.
We monitor and manage these exposures as an integral part of our overall risk management program, which includes regular reports to a central management committee, the Global Risk Management Committee (“GRMC”). The GRMC is chaired by our Chief Financial Officer, and the committee includes our Chief Accounting Officer and Treasurer.
We are exposed to liquidity risk, including the possibility of having to curtail business or being unable to meet financial obligations as they come due because funding sources may be reduced or become unavailable. Our plan is to maintain funding sources to ensure liquidity through a variety of economic or business cycles. As discussed in greater detail in Item 7, our funding sources include unsecured debt issuances, sales of receivables in securitization transactions and other structured financings, equity and equity-linked issuances, and bank borrowings.
We are exposed to a variety of other risks, such as loss or damage to property, liability claims, and employee injury. We protect against these risks through the purchase of commercial insurance that is designed to protect us above our self-insured retentions against events that could generate significant losses.
Direct responsibility for the execution of our market risk management strategies resides with our Treasurer’s Office and is governed by written policies and procedures. Separation of duties is maintained between the development and authorization of derivative trades, the transaction of derivatives, and the settlement of cash flows. Regular audits are conducted to ensure that appropriate controls are in place and that they remain effective. In addition, our market risk exposures and our use of derivatives to manage these exposures are approved by the GRMC and reviewed by the Audit Committee of our Board of Directors.
In accordance with our corporate risk management policies, we use derivative instruments, when available, such as forward contracts, swaps, and options that economically hedge certain exposures (foreign currency, commodity, and interest rates). We do not use derivative contracts for trading, market-making, or speculative purposes. In certain instances, we forgo hedge accounting, and in certain other instances, our derivatives do not qualify for hedge accounting. Either situation results in unrealized gains and losses that are recognized in income. For additional information on our derivatives, see Note 19 of the Notes to the Financial Statements.
The market and counterparty risks of the Company excluding Ford Credit as well as our Ford Credit segment are discussed and quantified below.
COMPANY EXCLUDING FORD CREDIT MARKET RISK
We frequently have expenditures and receipts denominated in foreign currencies, including the following: purchases and sales of finished vehicles and production parts, debt and other payables, subsidiary dividends, and investments in foreign operations. These expenditures and receipts create exposures to changes in exchange rates. We also are exposed to changes in prices of commodities used in the production of our vehicles and changes in interest rates.
Foreign currency risk, commodity risk, and interest rate risk are measured and quantified using a model to evaluate the sensitivity of market value to instantaneous, parallel shifts in rates and/or prices.
Foreign Currency Risk. Foreign currency risk is the possibility that our financial results could be worse than planned because of changes in currency exchange rates. Accordingly, our practice is to use derivative instruments to hedge our economic exposure with respect to forecasted revenues and costs, assets, liabilities, and firm commitments denominated in certain foreign currencies consistent with our overall risk management strategy. In our hedging actions, we use derivative instruments commonly used by corporations to reduce foreign exchange risk (e.g., forward contracts). The extent to which we hedge is also impacted by materiality of the risk in the context of our overall portfolio, market liquidity, and/or our ability to achieve designated hedge accounting.
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Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk (Continued)
The net fair value of foreign exchange forward contracts (including adjustments for credit risk) as of December 31, 2024 was an asset of $410 million, compared with a liability of $319 million as of December 31, 2023. The potential change in the fair value from a 10% change in the underlying exchange rates, in U.S. dollar terms, would have been $2.9 billion at December 31, 2024, compared with $3.1 billion at December 31, 2023. The sensitivity analysis presented is hypothetical and assumes foreign exchange rate changes are instantaneous and adverse across all currencies. In reality, some of our exposures offset and foreign exchange rates move in different magnitudes and at different times, and any changes in fair value would generally be offset by changes in the underlying exposure. See Note 19 of the Notes to the Financial Statements for more information regarding our foreign currency exchange contracts.
Commodity Price Risk. Commodity price risk is the possibility that our financial results could be worse than planned because of changes in the prices of commodities used in the production of motor vehicles, such as base metals (e.g., steel, copper, and aluminum), precious metals (e.g., palladium), energy (e.g., natural gas and electricity), and plastics/resins (e.g., polypropylene). As we transition to a greater mix of electric vehicles, we expect to increase our reliance on battery raw materials (e.g., lithium, cobalt, and nickel).
Our practice is to use derivative instruments to hedge the price risk with respect to forecasted purchases of certain commodities consistent with our overall risk management strategy. In our hedging actions, we use derivative instruments commonly used by corporations to reduce commodity price risk (e.g., financially settled forward contracts). The extent to which we hedge is also impacted by materiality of the risk in the context of our overall portfolio, market liquidity, and/or our ability to achieve designated hedge accounting.
The net fair value of commodity forward contracts (including adjustments for credit risk) as of December 31, 2024 was a liability of $8 million, compared with a liability of $9 million as of December 31, 2023. The potential change in the fair value from a 10% change in the underlying commodity prices would have been $189 million at December 31, 2024, compared with $203 million at December 31, 2023. The sensitivity analysis presented is hypothetical and assumes commodity price changes are instantaneous and adverse across all commodities. In reality, commodity prices move in different magnitudes and at different times, and any changes in fair value would generally be offset by changes in the underlying exposure.
In addition, our purchasing organization (with guidance from the GRMC, as appropriate) negotiates contracts for the continuous supply of raw materials. In some cases, these contracts stipulate minimum purchase amounts and specific prices, and, therefore, play a role in managing commodity price risk.
Interest Rate Risk. Interest rate risk relates to the loss we could incur in our Company cash investment portfolios due to a change in interest rates. Our interest rate sensitivity analysis on our investment portfolios includes cash and cash equivalents and net marketable securities. At December 31, 2024, we had Company cash of $28.5 billion in our investment portfolios, compared to $28.8 billion at December 31, 2023. We invest the portfolios in securities of various types and maturities, the value of which are subject to fluctuations in interest rates. The investment strategy is based on clearly defined risk and liquidity guidelines to maintain liquidity, minimize risk, and earn a reasonable return on the short-term investments. In investing the cash in our investment portfolios, safety of principal is the primary objective and risk-adjusted return is the secondary objective.
At any time, a rise in interest rates could have a material adverse impact on the fair value of our portfolios. Assuming a hypothetical increase in interest rates of one percentage point, the value of our portfolios would be reduced by $233 million, as calculated as of December 31, 2024. This compares to $222 million, as calculated as of December 31, 2023. While these are our best estimates of the impact of the specified interest rate scenario, actual results could differ from those projected. The sensitivity analysis presented assumes interest rate changes are instantaneous, parallel shifts in the yield curve. In reality, interest rate changes of this magnitude are rarely instantaneous or parallel.
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