Item 1. Business
Item 1. BUSINESS
Corporate Information
We were incorporated in the state of Delaware on January 3, 2011. During 2015, HealthCare Pharmaceuticals Pty Ltd. (“HCP Australia”) was formed and is our wholly owned subsidiary.
On December 10, 2015, we entered into a merger agreement with GITR Inc. (“GITR”), an entity under common control, whereby a wholly owned subsidiary was merged with GITR and the surviving name of the wholly owned subsidiary was GITR Inc.
On August 29, 2016, we entered into a merger agreement with Macrocure Ltd. (“Macrocure”), a publicly held, clinical-stage biotechnology company based in Petach Tikva, Israel. In connection with the merger, we applied to be listed on the Nasdaq Global Market. Nasdaq approved the listing, and trading in our common stock commenced on January 24, 2017, under the trading symbol “LPTX.” On February 1, 2017, Macrocure’s name was changed to Leap Therapeutics Ltd. In 2020, Leap Therapeutics Ltd. was dissolved.
On December 15, 2021, Leap Securities Corp. was formed and is our wholly owned subsidiary.
The mailing address of our principal executive office is 47 Thorndike Street, Suite B1-1, Cambridge, MA 02141. Our telephone number is 617-714 -0360 and our website address is www.leaptx.com (the information contained therein or linked thereto shall not be considered incorporated by reference in this Form 10-K).
Overview
We are a biopharmaceutical company developing novel therapies designed to treat patients with cancer by inhibiting fundamental tumor-promoting pathways and by harnessing the immune system to attack cancer cells. Our strategy is to identify, acquire, and develop molecules that will rapidly translate into high impact therapeutics that generate durable clinical benefit and enhanced patient outcomes. Our lead clinical stage program is DKN-01, a monoclonal antibody that inhibits Dickkopf-related protein 1, or DKK1. DKK1 is a protein that regulates the Wnt signaling pathways and enables tumor cells to proliferate and spread, as well as suppresses the immune system from attacking the tumor. When DKN-01 binds to DKK1, an anti-tumor effect can be generated. DKN-01-based therapies have generated responses and clinical benefit in several patient populations. We are currently studying DKN-01 in multiple ongoing clinical trials in patients with esophagogastric cancer, gynecologic cancers, or prostate cancer. In January 2020, we entered into an Option and License Agreement with BeiGene, Ltd., or BeiGene, which granted BeiGene the right to develop and commercialize DKN-01 in Asia (excluding Japan), Australia, and New Zealand. We intend to apply our extensive experience identifying and developing transformational products to aggressively develop DKN-01 and build a pipeline of programs that have the potential to change the practice of cancer medicine.
Market
Cancer is the general name for a group of more than 100 diseases in which cells grow and divide out of control. Over 14 million people in the United States have cancer. The National Cancer Institute, or NCI, estimated that approximately 1.8 million people developed cancer and that nearly 610,000 people died of cancer in 2020. While progress has been made from the War on Cancer to the Human Genome Project, and despite advances in early detection and new cancer cell targeted treatments, cancer generally remains an incurable disease.
Esophagogastric Cancer (EGC)
Esophageal cancer, or EC, and gastric cancer, or GC, are malignancies of the digestive tract. According to the GLOBOCAN database in 2020, there were about 18,300 new patients diagnosed in the United States with EC and 26,300 new patients with GC each year. GLOBOCAN estimates that there were over 604,000 EC patients and 1,090,000 GC patients diagnosed worldwide in 2020, with a majority of the prevalence in Eastern Asia. EC patients have difficulty swallowing and often have pain while swallowing. Substantial weight loss can result from reduced appetite, poor nutrition and having an active cancer. Pain may be severe, occur almost
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daily, and be worsened by swallowing any form of food. The disruption of normal swallowing can lead to aspiration of food content, nausea, vomiting and an increased risk of pneumonia. The tumor itself may be irritable and bleed, which can either cause spitting up with blood or blood in the bowels. Compression of local structures in the esophagus occurs in advanced disease, leading to problems such as upper airway obstruction. Many people diagnosed with EGC have late-stage disease, because people usually do not have significant symptoms until the tumor is fairly large. In advanced stages, the cancer frequently spreads into the liver or lungs.
The frequently-used therapies in patients who have not had many previous courses of treatment have low objective response rates, defined as patients with a greater than 30% reduction in tumor volume as determined by the Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors v1.1, known as RECIST. Published data has demonstrated that paclitaxel monotherapy generated a response rate of 6.7% in second-line EC patients and 16% in second-line GC patients. Studies have also demonstrated that anti-PD-1 antibody monotherapy generated a response rate of 9% in GC patients who have tumors that are not microsatellite instability high.
Recently, the anti-PD-1 antibody, nivolumab, in combination with fluoropyrimidine- and platinum-containing chemotherapy was approved by the US FDA in first-line EGC with a 47% response rate, 7.7 month median progression free survival, and 13.8 month overall survival. In addition, nivolumab in combination with chemotherapy was approved in Europe for patients with PD-L1 expression designated by a combined positive score, or CPS, greater than or equal to 5. In the KEYNOTE-062 clinical study, the anti-PD-1 antibody, pembrolizumab, in combination with fluoropyrimidine- and platinum-containing chemotherapy achieved a 48.6% response rate, 6.9 month median progression free survival, and 12.5 month median overall survival in patients with PD-L1 CPS greater than or equal to 1, in a study that did not achieve statistical significance over its comparator.
Gynecologic Cancers
There are numerous forms of gynecologic cancers, but two of the most prevalent types are cancers of the uterus or ovaries. GLOBOCAN estimates that in 2020 there were 61,700 patients diagnosed with uterine cancer and 23,800 patients diagnosed with ovarian cancer each year in the United States. There are currently very few treatment options for these patients, typically consisting of chemotherapy, local radiation therapy, and hormonal agents, and poor treatment outcomes. Patients with endometrioid cancers have a high frequency of mutations in a protein known as beta-catenin, with alterations estimated at approximately 30% of cases according to The Cancer Genome Atlas. These β-catenin mutations are often driver mutations leading to rapid disease progression and poor outcomes. Recently, the anti-programmed cell death-1, or PD-1, antibody dostarlimab-gxly was granted accelerated approval by FDA for endometrial cancer patients with microsatellite instability high, or MSI-H, or mismatch repair deficient, or dMMR, disease who had progression on or after a chemotherapy regimen. In addition, the combination of lenvatinib and pembrolizumab was approved in second line non-MSI-H or mismatch repair proficient endometrial carcinoma patients with a 30% response rate, 6.6 month median progression free survival, and 17.4 month median overall survival. However, this combination has been associated with significant toxicity with an 89% rate of grade 3 or higher treatment-emergent adverse events, including a 6% rate of fatal adverse events.
Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer is one of the most common types of cancer in men. There are several types of prostate cancer, but the vast majority are adenocarcinomas that arise from the gland cells that produce prostate fluid as part of the male reproductive system. GLOBOCAN estimates that in 2020 there were 210,000 cases diagnosed in the United States. Treatment options include the surgical removal of the prostate, radiation, as well as hormonal agents; many of which can result in poor side effects, such as urinary incontinence and erectile dysfunction. Most prostate cancer tumors eventually become resistant to hormonal treatments. At this stage, which is referred to as metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer, or mCRPC, chemotherapies, usually taxanes, offer the next line of treatment offering objective response rates of 30% or less. After progressing through taxanes, the next line of treatment consists of cabazitaxel or Radium-223, both of which are associated with significant toxicity. DKK1 is upregulated in prostate cancers with low androgen receptor, or AR, expression, including aggressive variant prostate cancer, or AVPC, and prostate cancers with co-occuring beta-catenin mutations Research has shown that, in the AVPC subtype, patients with higher DKK1 levels have a loss of certain immune system cells that could target the cancer.
Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is one of the most prevalent cancers in the United States and world. The two main types are Non-small cell lung cancer, or NSCLC, and Small cell lung cancer, or SCLC. About 85% of all cases are NSCLC, while SCLC accounts for 10-15%. GLOBOCAN estimates that in 2020 there were 228,000 cases diagnosed in the United States and there were 138,000 deaths, making
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up roughly 25% of all annual cancer deaths. Smoking is one of leading contributory factors in developing lung cancer. In contrast to SCLC, NSCLC’s, which can further be broken down primarily into squamous, adenocarcinoma, and large cell carcinoma, are more likely to be cured by surgical resection. However, once metastatic, NSCLC is largely unresponsive to systemic chemotherapies. Targeted systemic therapies can offer hope to patients with known specific driver mutations, such as in the EGFR or ALK genes, or with immune-evasive biomarkers, such as PD-L1 expression. Despite these targeted treatment advances, there is still a significant unmet medical need and improved treatments are needed. DKK1 expression is associated with worse overall survival in lung cancer patients within The Cancer Genome Atlas project.
Cancer Therapies and New Targets
Older, established cancer therapies, or chemotherapies, target rapidly dividing cells. While chemotherapies can attack and kill cancer cells, these drugs also attack and destroy rapidly dividing non-cancer normal cells and, unfortunately, are associated with unwanted side effects. Even though outcomes can often be improved by giving a cancer patient two or more chemotherapies in combination, physicians and patients desire new drugs with greater efficacy and fewer side effects. Recently, a revolution in the understanding of cancer biology has generated compelling new anti-cancer targets that are based on fundamental mechanisms used by cancer cells to grow, spread, and survive, which are:
● cell signaling pathways that promote tumor growth, and
● evading detection and avoiding destruction by the immune system.
Cancer Cell Signaling
Cancer cells often hijack proteins that are involved in cell signaling pathways, the complex communication system that governs basic cellular functions and activities, such as cell division, cell movement, cell responses to specific stimuli, and even cell death. By blocking signals that tell cancer cells to grow and divide uncontrollably, to generate new blood vessels, a process referred to as angiogenesis, or to spread to other parts of the body, a process referred to as metastasis, a new generation of cancer therapies is seeking to help stop cancer progression, which could lead to cancer cell death. By focusing on cellular signaling pathways and molecules that are used by cancer cells, these targeted cancer therapies may be more effective than other types of treatment, including chemotherapy, and less harmful to normal cells. Several small molecule and monoclonal antibodies that target cell signaling pathways have been approved by the FDA as cancer therapies for specific patient populations.
Cancer Immunotherapy
The immune system has evolved a dynamic ability to identify and attack cells which pose a danger to the body. Often these dangerous cells are foreign, or non-self, cells, but a person’s own cells can become a danger, such as with cancer. Ideally, the immune system identifies cancer cells as dangerous and removes them before they can grow into tumors. However, cancer cells can evade or suppress the body’s natural immune response by secreting anti-inflammatory molecules and by using receptors on the cell membrane of either immune system cells or cancer cells known as immune checkpoints. Cancer therapies known as checkpoint inhibitors, such as nivolumab, pembrolizumab, atezolizumab, and tislelizumab, are designed to block checkpoint receptors, such as PD-1, or its ligand, PD-L1, and prevent the cancer cell from evading the natural immune response, thus enabling the immune system to mount an attack on the tumor. While there are several FDA-approved checkpoint inhibitors, there is a consensus in the scientific and medical communities that there remains room for improvement in response rate and efficacy. In many cases, the lack of efficacy has been attributed to an insufficient immune response.
Our Approach
Our approach to treating cancer patients seeks to enhance the effectiveness of approved chemotherapies and immune checkpoint inhibitors by:
● altering cell signaling pathways that promote tumor growth and spreading;
● stimulating the immune cells that could attack the tumor; and
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● inhibiting immune suppression that would prevent an attack on the tumor.
Altering cell signaling. An important set of signaling pathways in cancer cells are known as the canonical and non-canonical Wnt pathways and the PI3 kinase—AKT pathway. DKK1 serves as one of the inhibitors of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway, modulates the non-canonical Wnt signaling pathways, and directly activates the PI3 kinase—AKT pathway. Changes in these pathways can lead to the expression of several cancer-causing genes and factors associated with cell growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis. We believe that a monoclonal antibody that reduces free DKK1 could shift signaling to healthier levels, thereby resulting in an anti-tumor effect as well as a local anti-angiogenic effect in the diseased tissue. These mechanisms could enhance or complement the anti-tumor mechanisms used by chemotherapies or other therapies targeted at different cell signaling pathways.
Enhancing anti-tumor immune cells. A potential way to enhance an immune response against a tumor is by activating tumor-attacking immune cells, such as natural killer cells, or NK cells, or T lymphocytes, or T cells. This strategy is expected to overcome mechanisms that would prevent these immune cells from attacking a tumor. Preclinical data has shown that DKK1 suppresses the activity of NK cells in the tumor microenvironment and that inhibition of DKK1 can enhance NK cell activity. Antibodies that enhance the immune system have the potential to be combined with chemotherapy or checkpoint inhibitors to generate a more robust anti-tumor immune response.
Inhibiting immune suppression. The human immune system has the ability to recognize and protect its own cells and tissues. Certain kinds of white blood cells, such as T regulatory cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, serve to prevent other cells from attacking the body. In the case of cancer, these cells may fail to recognize the danger posed by the tumor and suppress the activity of potentially tumor-fighting white blood cells. In addition, cancer cells promote these suppressor cells by producing anti-inflammatory molecules, such as DKK1. We believe that monoclonal antibodies that reduce the levels of anti-inflammatory molecules, such as DKK1, in the tumor microenvironment could result in the inhibition of immune suppressor cells and create a pro-inflammatory environment to enhance the immune system activity against the tumor.
By targeting novel pathways and immune cell types, our therapies are designed to combine with existing drugs and have the potential to significantly increase the survival and quality of life of cancer patients.
Our Product and Clinical Studies
DKN-01
DKK1 is a cell secreted protein that research has found plays a crucial role in embryonic development. DKK1 binds to specific cell surface receptors and affects the signaling of key cellular pathways, known as the canonical and non-canonical Wnt signaling pathways. DKK1 serves as one of the inhibitors of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway and modulates the non-canonical Wnt signaling pathways. DKK1 is also a modulator of CKAP4/PI3K/AKT signaling. Changes in these pathways can lead to the expression of several cancer-causing genes and factors associated with cell growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis. DKK1 also has a role in suppressing the immune system from effectively targeting and clearing the cancer.
Published data, including from TCGA and real world evidence from our collaboration with Tempus, indicates that DKK1 expression levels are significantly higher or have an important high DKK1 population in many cancers, including esophagogastric cancer, or EGC, non-small cell lung cancer, or NSCLC, endometrial cancer, colorectal cancer, or CRC, and prostate cancer. In addition, elevated DKK1 expression is associated with worse overall survival or time to treatment discontinuation for patients with EGC, NSCLC, endometrial cancer, CRC, prostate cancer, and other cancers. Researchers have shown that when the DKK1 protein is added in certain animal models, the cancer grows larger.
Recent publications have also demonstrated a role for DKK1 in maintaining an environment around a tumor that suppresses the immune system’s ability to clear the tumor and to prevent metastasis. DKK1 has been shown to activate the suppressive effects of myeloid-derived suppressor cells, or MDSC, a type of white blood cell that can potently block other immune system cells. Other published data has shown that metastatic tumor cells with stem cell-like features avoid the immune system by overexpressing DKK1 and secreting it out of the cell. Secreted DKK1 can then down-regulate certain molecules on tumor cells known as natural killer cell activating ligands, or NK cell ligands, that would activate the immune system, causing these cancer cells to remain invisible to NK cells and evade the immune system. Through these multiple activities, research has shown that DKK1 helps protect the cancer cells from being targeted by the immune system.
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Preclinical studies that we and others have conducted demonstrated that using an anti-DKK1 antibody can lead to clinical benefits in xenograft cancer models. The anti-DKK1 antibody is believed to shift cell signaling to healthy levels, thereby resulting in an anti-tumor effect as well as a local anti-angiogenic effect in the diseased tissue. In these models, researchers demonstrated that an anti-DKK1 antibody allowed the immune system to recognize and attack the cancer cells. We believe that the more selective and local the activity is to the tumor, the more likely a drug will be safe and well tolerated and a potential combination partner to other anti-cancer drugs. Further, our preclinical and clinical data suggests that DKN-01 upregulates PD-L1, suggestive of synergy in combination with an anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy.
DKN-01 is a high affinity, neutralizing monoclonal antibody targeting DKK1. We have shown that DKN-01 reduces free DKK1 levels and has demonstrated an anti-tumor effect in preclinical models.
On June 11, 2020, the FDA granted orphan drug designation to DKN-01 for the treatment of gastric and gastroesophageal junction cancer. In addition, on September 24, 2020 the FDA granted Fast Track designation to DKN-01 in combination with BeiGene’s tislelizumab for the treatment of patients with gastric and gastroesophageal junction adenocarcinoma whose tumors express high DKK1, following disease progression on or after prior fluoropyrimidine- and platinum- containing chemotherapy and if appropriate, human epidermal receptor growth factor (HER2)/neu-targeted therapy.
First-in-human study
Our first -in-human study of DKN-01 was a single ascending dose Phase 1 trial in patients with low bone density. DKN-01 was administered by intravenous infusion at doses from 7 mg to 300 mg and as a subcutaneous injection at a dose of 44 mg. Eight subjects were treated per cohort, five of whom received DKN-01 and three of whom received placebo, for a total of 48 subjects in six cohorts. There were no clinically significant safety signals observed with increasing doses of DKN-01, and all reported adverse events were mild in severity.
P100—Advanced Solid Tumors or Multiple Myeloma Study
We conducted study P100, a two-part dose-finding Phase 1 study, to establish the safety, maximum tolerated dose, and antitumor activity of DKN-01 as a monotherapy for patients with advanced malignancies. Other endpoints were progression free survival, or PFS, overall response rate, or ORR, and overall survival, or OS. Part A of the study was a dose escalation designed to evaluate increasing doses of DKN-01 between 75 mg and 600 mg administered weekly or biweekly in a 28 day cycle. Part B of the study was an expansion cohort designed to evaluate the activity of DKN-01 as a single agent in patients with advanced NSCLC. For Part B, DKN-01 was administered to refractory NSCLC patients at 300 mg on days 1 and 15 of each 28 day cycle.
We enrolled thirty-two patients in Parts A and B, twenty-four of whom were patients with NSCLC. DKN-01 was well tolerated with no dose limiting toxicities, or DLTs, or serious adverse events, or SAEs, that were deemed by the physician to be related to DKN-01 treatment or treatment-emergent adverse events, or TEAEs, which lead to study discontinuation. All of the treatment-related adverse events were Grade 1 or Grade 2, the two lowest severity levels. TEAEs were generally those typically observed in cancer patients; and the most frequently reported treatment-related TEAEs were fatigue and nausea.
DKN-01 as a single agent demonstrated clinical activity in patients with refractory NSCLC, with a clinical benefit rate of 45.9%, including one NSCLC patient (4.2%) with more than a 30% reduction in the size of their tumor, referred to as a partial response or PR. In the Part B group of NSCLC patients who were dosed at a level of 300 mg every two weeks, the clinical benefit rate was 47.4%, including the patient with the PR (5.3%). Median PFS in the evaluable Part B NSCLC patients was 2.2 months and median OS was 6.6 months.
P102—Esophagogastric Cancer (EGC)
We conducted study P102, a multi-part Phase 1/2 study of DKN-01 as a monotherapy and in combination with paclitaxel or KEYTRUDA ® (pembrolizumab) in advanced EGC patients, all of whom have had previous treatment with standard therapies. Many of these subjects have had multiple lines of prior therapy and/or rapidly growing tumors, representing a difficult to treat population. The study is intended to establish the safety and activity of DKN-01 as a monotherapy and in combination with paclitaxel or pembrolizumab and has the secondary endpoints of ORR, PFS, and OS.
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Monotherapy
Two DKN-01 monotherapy patients in the sub-study experienced PRs by central imaging analysis. A patient who had previously been treated with prior immunotherapies, including an anti- PD -L1 antibody and an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), achieved a PR and was on therapy for over one year, and an additional esophageal cancer patient experienced a single agent PR. Six additional patients of the twenty evaluable for central imaging assessment were determined to have had a best response of stable disease (SD).
Paclitaxel Combination
In total, fifty-eight patients were treated with DKN-01 in combination with paclitaxel chemotherapy, with fifty-two patients evaluable for response. Across all lines of prior therapy and tumor types, DKN-01 plus paclitaxel generated a 25.0% ORR, 13.4 weeks PFS, and 27.9 weeks OS. The combination of DKN-01 plus paclitaxel generated a 46.7% ORR, 19.6 weeks PFS, and 61.1 weeks OS in fifteen evaluable patients as a second-line therapy.
One of our goals is to identify biomarkers or genetic alterations that could define a patient population more likely to respond to treatment with DKN-01. In this study, four patients evaluated with genetic testing on pre-treatment biopsies were found to have activating/stabilizing mutations of beta-catenin, which is a molecule in the Wnt signaling pathway implicated in oncogenesis, metastasis, and immune suppression. Of these four patients, two achieved PRs and one had prolonged SD. One patient had a response exceeding 2.5 years, of which over 1.5 years was on DKN-01 monotherapy with continued tumor reduction.
Pembrolizumab Combination
Sixty-three patients were treated with DKN-01 plus pembrolizumab combination therapy. Fifty-three patients had not received prior PD-1/PD -L1 therapy, and ten patients were refractory to PD-1/PD-L1 therapy. All of the patients enrolled had tumors that were microsatellite stable or unknown. Patients in the study were heavily pretreated having had received one to five prior lines of therapy, with nearly 64% having received a prior taxane regimen, 37% having received prior ramucirumab, and 24% having received prior trastuzumab. The combination therapy was well tolerated with no new safety signals.
The combination of DKN-01 and pembrolizumab in gastroesophageal junction and gastric cancer patients demonstrated improved outcomes in patients whose tumors expressed high levels of DKK1 as measured by in situ hybridization RNAscope, or DKK1-high, and who had not previously been treated with PD-1/PD-L1 therapy. DKK1-high patients experienced over 22 weeks median PFS and nearly 32 weeks OS, with a 50% ORR and an 80% disease control rate, or DCR, in ten evaluable patients. Patients whose tumors expressed low levels of DKK1, or DKK1-low, experienced nearly 6 weeks median PFS and just over 17 weeks OS, with a 20% DCR in fifteen evaluable patients.
By independent central imaging review, two out of six DKK1-high PD-1/PD-L1 naïve esophageal cancer patients experienced a PR. Both of these responses lasted over 200 days. Of the ten PD-1/PD-L1 naïve esophageal cancer patients who had received more than one prior line of therapy, there was a 40% DCR in the five DKK1-high patients compared to a 0% DCR for the five DKK1-low patients.
The DKK1-high anti-PD-1/PD-L1 refractory patients treated with DKN-01 plus pembrolizumab experienced a significantly longer PFS of 12.8 weeks and OS of 46 weeks compared to the DKK1 -low patients who experienced a PFS of 6 weeks and OS of 16 weeks. Among the six GEJ/GC patients who were refractory to PD-1/PD-L1 therapy, three DKK1-high patients had a best response of SD, whereas the three patients with DKK1-low tumors had progressive disease (PD).
PD-L1 Combined Positive Scores, or CPS, did not predict efficacy on the combination of DKN-01 plus pembrolizumab. In multi- variate analysis, DKK1-high status correlated with longer PFS independent of PD-L1 CPS scores. One-third of patients in the study were DKK1-high.
DisTinGuish (P205)—Tislelizumab Combination in GC/GEJ
As part of the collaboration with BeiGene, we are conducting P205, the DisTinGuish study, evaluating the combination of DKN-01 and BeiGene’s anti-PD-1 antibody, tislelizumab. We are enrolling approximately forty patients with second-line GC/GEJ
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whose tumors are DKK1-high, determined by a prospective biomarker analysis having a histology score, or H-score, of > 35. In addition, we are evaluating the combination of DKN-01 with tislelizumab and capecitabine and oxaliplatin (CAPOX) in twenty-five patients with first-line GC/GEJ. We initiated this clinical trial in the third quarter of 2020 and presented initial data at ESMO 2021 and ASCO GI 2022.
First Line – Combination with Tislelizumab and Chemotherapy
Twenty-five first-line GC/GEJ patients were treated with DKN-01 in combination with tislelizumab, capecitabine, and oxaliplatin. As of December 10 th , 2021, the ORR among the 22 patients who received a full cycle of DKN-01 therapy was 68%, including one complete response, or CR, and 14 PRs. The DKK1-high patient subgroup had a 90% response rate, with 9 PR and 1 patient non-evaluable, while the DKK1-low subgroup had a 56% response rate, 5 PR and 4 SD. The preliminary median PFS was 10.7 months for the overall population, with the DKK1-high subgroup experiencing 11.9 months PFS and the DKK1-low subgroup experiencing 10.7 months PFS. The median duration of response in DKK1-high patients was 10.7 months and 7.9 months in DKK1-low patients. Overall survival had not yet been reached in any group. Patients with low PD-L1 expression, defined as having a vCPS (visually-estimated Combined Positive Score, also known as Tumor Area Positivity (TAP) score - Ventana Medical Systems) of less than 5, had a response rate of 79% while patients with high PD-L1 expression, defined as having a vCPS of greater than or equal to 5, had a response rate of 67%. Additional data is expected to be presented at a medical conference in the second half of 2022.
The combination was well tolerated. The most common DKN-01-related adverse events were low grade (Grade 1 or 2): fatigue, nausea, diarrhea, neutrophil count decrease, and platelet count decrease.
Second Line DKK1-high Patients –Tislelizumab Combination
As of December 10, 2021, the second-line GC/GEJ study of DKN-01 in combination with tislelizumab has enrolled 30 patients and is still actively enrolling patients with a target of 40 evaluable patients. For those patients able to complete at least one full cycle of DKN-01 therapy 9n=20), the response rate was 25% (5 PRs), not including one patient who experienced a PR by iRECIST. Additional data is expected to be presented at a medical conference in the second half of 2022.
The combination of DKN-01 and tislelizumab has been well tolerated with manageable toxicity across both the 300 mg and 600 mg doses of DKN-01. The most common DKN-01-related adverse events were low grade (Grade 1 and 2): fatigue and nausea.
P204—Gynecologic Malignancies
We conducted study P204, a Phase 2 basket study of DKN-01 as a monotherapy and in combination with paclitaxel in patients with advanced epithelial endometrioid cancer (EEC), epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC), and carcinosarcoma. The study consisted of six dosing groups and enrolled 111 patients. The primary objective in each independent study group was to determine the ORR. Secondary objectives were to determine additional measurements of efficacy, such as OS and PFS, and to evaluate the safety of the study treatment regimen. The study was designed to enroll at least 50% of patients whose tumors have predefined activating mutations or signaling alterations in the Wnt pathway.
Twenty-nine EEC patients, who had previously received one to ten lines of therapy, enrolled on DKN-01 monotherapy. Tumoral DKK1 expression data was available for 23 patients. In the group of eight patients with DKK1-high tumors, one patient (12.5%) has had a CR for over 3.5 years, one patient (12.5%) had a PR, three patients (37.5%) had SD, and three patients (37.5%) had PD, representing an ORR of 25.0% and a DCR of 62.5%. In the group of fifteen patients with DKK1-low tumors, one patient (6.7%) had SD, eleven patients (93.3%) had PD, and three patients were non-evaluable. The DKK1-high patients experienced PFS of 4.3 months, compared to the DKK1-low patients who experienced PFS of 1.8 months.
One patient with carcinosarcoma treated with DKN-01 and paclitaxel experienced a CR approximately two years on therapy, while another DKK1-high patient with carcinosarcoma treated with DKN-01 and paclitaxel experienced a PR.
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Investigator-Initiated and Collaborative Group Studies
As part of our strategy to advance the development of DKN-01 in a cost-effective manner and on a global basis, we work with key opinion leaders and groups to initiate and conduct clinical trials in targeted patient populations and in combination with other therapies. We currently have established relationships for four investigator-initiated studies (ISTs):
Prostate Cancer : We have an IST led by David R. Wise, M.D., Ph.D. of the Perlmutter Cancer Center at NYU Langone Health evaluating DKN-01 in advanced metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer patients. Initial data is expected to be released at a medical conference in 2022.
Esophagogastric Cancer : The Royal Marsden Hospital in the United Kingdom is conducting the WAKING study that is evaluating DKN-01 in combination with Roche’s Tecentriq ® (atezolizumab) in patients with microsatellite stable esophagogastric cancer. Roche is providing atezolizumab drug supply and funding the study as part of its imCORE network.
Intellectual Property
We strive to protect and enhance the proprietary technology, inventions and improvements that are commercially important to our business, including seeking, maintaining and defending patent rights. We also rely on confidential know -how that may be important to the development of our business. We protect our confidential know-how as trade secrets and through confidentiality agreements and invention assignment agreements with our employees, consultants, scientific advisors and others. We additionally expect to rely on regulatory protection afforded through data exclusivity as well as patent term extensions, where available.
Our commercial success may depend in part on our ability to obtain and maintain patent and other proprietary protection for commercially important technology, inventions and know-how related to our business; to defend and enforce our patents; to preserve the confidentiality of our know-how and trade secrets; and to operate without infringing the valid and enforceable patents and proprietary rights of third parties.
Our ability to prevent third parties from making, using, selling, offering to sell or importing competing products to ours, including a competitor to DKN-01, depends on the validity, enforceability and/or scope of our patents. We have several patents and patent applications relating to DKN-01 and its therapeutic uses, and possess substantial know- how relating to the development and commercialization of DKN-01. We cannot be sure that any of our pending patent applications or future patent filings will lead to the issuance of new patents, nor can we be sure that any of our existing patents or any patents that may be granted to us in the future will be adequate to protect our market.
We plan on pursuing in-licensing opportunities to develop, strengthen and maintain our proprietary position in our field. We expect to use trademark protection for our products as they are marketed.
Patents
We exclusively license from Eli Lilly and Company, or Lilly, rights under 23 issued patents and 4 pending patent applications, all of which belong to the same patent family. The patents and applications in this patent family are directed to the composition of matter and use of DKN-01, and include (i) one issued U.S. Patent, (ii) issued patents in the following jurisdictions: Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, Eurasia, Europe, Gulf Cooperation Council, India, Israel, Japan, Lebanon, Macao, Mexico, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore, South Africa, Taiwan, Ukraine, Hong Kong and South Korea and (iii) pending applications in the following jurisdictions: Brazil, Europe, Venezuela and Thailand. The base 20-year term for patents in this family would expire in 2030. The U.S. patent will expire 87 days after the base term due to patent term adjustment. Patent term extensions for delays in marketing approval may also extend the terms of patents in this family.
We own pending applications directed to the use of a biomarker in patients receiving DKN-01 therapy in the following jurisdictions: Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Europe, Hong Kong, India, Israel, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Russia, Singapore and the United States. Any patents that may issue in the United States based on the pending U.S. Application will expire in 2037, absent any terminal disclaimer, patent term adjustment due to administrative delays by the USPTO or patent term extension under the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, referred to as the Hatch-Waxman Act or Hatch-Waxman Amendment, and provided that all required maintenance fee payments are timely paid. Any patents that may issue in foreign
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jurisdictions will likewise expire in 2037, provided that all required annuities are timely paid. We also own two pending international patent applications filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) directed to the treatment of cancer using DKN-01 in specific subpopulations of patients. The PCT is an international patent law treaty that provides a unified procedure for filing a single initial patent application to seek patent protection for an invention simultaneously in each of the member states. Although a PCT application is not itself examined and cannot issue as a patent, it allows the applicant to seek protection in any of the member states through national-phase applications. In the first PCT application, the patient subpopulation is defined by its DKK-1 expression level. In the second PCT application, the patient subpopulation is defined as harboring a specific genetic mutation. Any patents than may issue in the United States based on the pending PCT applications will expire in 2040, absent any terminal disclaimers, patent term adjustment due to administrative delays at the USPTO or patent term extension under the Hatch-Waxman Act, and provided that all required maintenance fee payments are timely paid. Any patents that may issue in foreign jurisdictions will likewise expire in 2040, provided that all required annuities are timely paid.
We have historically been developing a second pipeline product, TRX518, which is a monoclonal antibody that targets the glucocorticoid TNF- family receptor, or GITR. We discontinued the active development of TRX518 in November 2019. We own 67 patents and 5 pending patent applications relating to TRX518 and uses thereof. The patents and applications primarily fall into two families. The base 20 -year term for U.S. patents in the first family would expire in 2026 and in the second family would expire in 2028 provided that all required maintenance fee payments are timely paid and no terminal disclaimers are filed. Patent term extensions for delays in marketing approval may also extend the terms of patents in these two families. The various patent applications and patents covering TRX518 include claims directed to compositions of matter (antibodies and antigen- binding fragments), pharmaceutical compositions, methods for inducing or enhancing an immune response, methods of treating a subject having a cancerous tumor, combination therapies, and uses of antibodies and antigen-binding fragments. Patent applications and patents claiming these subject matters have been filed and/or granted in the following jurisdictions: the United States, Australia, Canada, Europe (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom), Hong Kong, India and Japan.
Patent Term
The base term of a U.S. patent is 20 years from the filing date of the earliest-filed non-provisional patent application to which the patent is entitled to priority. The term of a U.S. patent can be lengthened by patent term adjustment, which compensates the owner of the patent for administrative delays at the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). In some cases, the term of a U.S. patent is shortened by a terminal disclaimer that reduces its term to that of an earlier-expiring U.S. patent.
The term of a U.S. patent may be eligible for patent term extension under the Hatch-Waxman Act, to account for at least some of the time a product is under development and regulatory review after the patent is granted. With regard to a product for which FDA approval is the first permitted marketing of the active ingredient, the Hatch-Waxman Act allows for extension of protection of one U.S. patent that includes at least one claim covering the composition of matter of an FDA-approved product, an FDA-approved method of treatment using the product, and/or a method of manufacturing the FDA-approved product. The extended protection cannot exceed the shorter of five years beyond the non-extended expiration of the patent or fourteen years from the date of the FDA approval of the product. Some foreign jurisdictions, including Europe, have patent extension provisions (e.g., supplementary protection certificates), which allow for extension of the protection of a patent that covers a drug approved by the applicable foreign regulatory agency. In the future, if and when DKN-01 receives FDA approval, we expect to apply for patent term extension to extend the protection of one of our U.S. patents covering DKN-01, its use, or a method of manufacturing this product. We also may pursue extensions in foreign jurisdictions where applicable.
Lilly License Agreement
On January 3, 2011, we entered into a license agreement with Lilly (the “Lilly Agreement”), pursuant to which Lilly granted us an exclusive license for certain intellectual property rights relating to pharmaceutically active compounds that may be useful in the treatment of bone healing, cancer and, potentially, other medical conditions. The license includes a right to sublicense, under certain Lilly intellectual property rights to further develop and commercialize, on a worldwide basis, pharmaceutical products containing such licensed compounds.
Pursuant to the Lilly Agreement, we granted to Lilly 657,614 shares of common stock and agreed to pay Lilly a royalty in the low single digits of net sales of a particular product in the territory during the applicable royalty term, with certain adjustments to be made
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to the royalty rate in connection with third person intellectual property, sales of competing products, and sales of biosimilar or generic products. We have not yet paid any royalties to Lilly pursuant to this agreement.
The royalty term, with respect to each country in which a product is sold, on a country -by-country and product-by-product basis, begins on first commercial sale of the product in the country and the later of (i) the tenth anniversary of the first date of commercial sale of the product in the country, (ii) expiration of the last-to-expire issued patent included within the patents licensed under the Lilly Agreement having a valid claim covering the sale of the product, and (iii) the expiration of any data exclusivity period for the product in the country.
The term of the Lilly Agreement began on January 3, 2011 and, unless earlier terminated pursuant to the termination provisions described below, will continue on a country-by-country basis until we have no remaining royalty or other payment obligations in a specific country. Upon expiration in a given country, the licenses granted with respect to such country shall become fully paid up, perpetual and irrevocable.
Either party may terminate the Lilly Agreement with immediate effect if the other party enters into bankruptcy or takes similar action. We may terminate the Lilly Agreement (i) at any time without cause upon ninety (90) days written notice to Lilly or (ii) upon material breach of the Lilly Agreement by Lilly upon ninety (90) days written notice to Lilly, unless Lilly cures such breach or violation during such ninety (90) day period. Lilly may terminate the agreement (i) upon our material breach of the Lilly Agreement upon ninety (90) days written notice to us, unless we cure such breach or violation during such ninety day period or (ii) if we challenge, or materially assist any third person to challenge, the validity or enforceability of the licensed intellectual property that is the subject of the Lilly Agreement upon thirty (30) days written notice to us, unless we cure such breach or violation during such thirty (30) day period.
If Lilly terminates the Lilly Agreement or if we terminate the Lilly Agreement without cause, (i) all rights under the licensed intellectual property rights will terminate and immediately and automatically revert to Lilly, (ii) any sublicense will be assigned by us to Lilly so that such sublicense becomes a direct license between Lilly and such sublicensee, (iii) subject to certain limitations, we will be required to grant to Lilly an irrevocable, non-exclusive, perpetual, fully paid up license under all patent rights developed or acquired by us during the term of the Lilly Agreement that relate to the Lilly licensed intellectual property, (iv) subject to certain limitations, we will be required to grant to Lilly an irrevocable, non-exclusive, perpetual, fully paid up license to the results of data from all preclinical and clinical studies of any compound or product covered by the Lilly Agreement, (v) subject to certain limitations, we will be required to take all steps necessary to permit Lilly to commence marketing product covered by the Lilly Agreement, and (vi) we will be required to assign or re-assign to Lilly all Lilly patents covered by the Lilly Agreement and that were assigned by Lilly to us. If we terminate the Lilly Agreement for material breach by Lilly or Lilly’s bankruptcy, the licenses will remain in full force and effect and we will remain liable for the payment of all royalty obligations under the Lilly Agreement. However, in this case, we may offset against such royalties any damages that we are entitled to for breach of the Lilly Agreement by Lilly.
The Lilly Agreement also contains certain standard representations and warranties and certain standard confidentiality and indemnification provisions.
Lonza License Agreement
On May 28, 2015, we entered into a license agreement with Lonza Sales AG (the “Lonza Agreement”), pursuant to which Lonza granted us a world-wide, non-exclusive license for certain intellectual property rights relating to a gene expression system, solutions of nutrients used in mammalian cell culture and related know-how and patent rights to use, test, develop, manufacture, market, sell offer for sale, distribute, import and export DKN-01. Such license includes a right to sublicense to (i) a competing contract manufacturer solely for the purpose of such manufacturer producing DKN-01 and (ii) our affiliates and strategic partners solely for undertaking commercial activities.
In exchange for the license and sublicense described above, we agreed to pay to Lonza a low single-digit royalty calculated as a percentage of net sales on DKN-01. In addition, in connection with DKN-01 manufactured by Lonza, or a strategic partner of Lonza, we agreed to pay (i) an annual payment to Lonza beginning on the date of initiation of phase 1 clinical trials for DKN-01 and (ii) an increased annual payment to Lonza beginning on the date of initiation of phase 2 clinical trials for DKN-01, for so long as Lonza, or a strategic partner of Lonza, manufactures DKN-01. In connection with DKN-01 manufactured by any other party, we agreed to pay (i) an annual amount to Lonza per sublicense beginning on the commencement date of such sublicense and continuing for so long as
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the sublicense exists and (ii) a low single- digit royalty calculated as a percentage of net sales of DKN-01. All royalty amounts are subject to certain adjustments if, on a country-by -country basis, the manufacture and/or sale of DKN-01 are not protected by a valid claim. All royalty obligations will expire on a country-by-country basis upon the later of (i) the expiration, revocation or complete rejection of all valid claims covering product in such country or (ii) ten (10) years from first commercial sale of DKN-01 in such country.
The Lonza Agreement will remain in force in each country of the world until either the expiration of the last valid patent claim or for so long as the know-how is identified and remains secret and substantial, whichever is later. Upon expiration of the Lonza Agreement with respect to DKN-01 in a particular country, the licenses granted under the Lonza Agreement with respect to DKN-01 in that country will become fully paid and royalty free.
Either party may terminate the Lonza Agreement (i) if the other party commits a breach of the Lonza Agreement and such breach is not cured within forty-five (45) days of receiving notice of the breach (or thirty (30) days in the case of payment defaults) or (ii) if the other party is unable to pay its debts and enters into compulsory or voluntary liquidation or enters into a bankruptcy or takes other similar action. We may terminate the Lonza Agreement by giving sixty (60) days written notice to Lonza. Lonza may, at its option, immediately terminate any or all of the licenses granted under the Lonza Agreement if we knowingly oppose any patent application within the patent rights granted or dispute the validity of any patent under the Lonza Agreement or assist any third party to do so. Termination of the Lonza Agreement will terminate all licenses granted under the Lonza Agreement.
The Lonza Agreement also contains certain standard confidentiality and indemnification provisions.
Competition
The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are characterized by continuing technological advancement and significant competition. While we believe that our product candidates, technology, knowledge, experience and scientific resources provide us with competitive advantages, we face competition from major pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, academic institutions, governmental agencies and public and private research institutions, among others. Any product candidates that we successfully develop and commercialize will compete with existing therapies and new therapies that may become available in the future. Key product features that would affect our ability to effectively compete with other therapeutics include the efficacy, safety and convenience of our products and the ease of use and effectiveness of any companion diagnostics. The level of generic competition and the availability of reimbursement from government and other third-party payors will also significantly affect the pricing and competitiveness of our products. Our competitors also may obtain FDA or other regulatory approval for their products more rapidly than we may obtain approval for ours, which could result in our competitors establishing a strong market position before we are able to enter the market.
Many of the companies against which we may compete have significantly greater financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical testing, conducting clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved products than we do. Smaller or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. For example, Novartis, Merck, Amgen, and Pfizer are all currently developing or have previously been developing anti-DKK1 monoclonal antibodies. These competitors also compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel and establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or necessary for, our programs.
Manufacturing and Distribution
We do not have, and we do not currently plan to acquire or develop, the facilities or capabilities to manufacture clinical trial material for use in human clinical trials or finished drug product for commercialization. We depend on third-party contract manufacturers, or CMOs, for the production of clinical trial material for our studies. Our bulk drug substance, or DS, is produced at our CMO, Patheon Biologics, which is required to comply with the FDA’s Current Good Manufacturing Practice, or cGMP, regulations. Our finished drug product is produced at a contract fill/finisher provider, which is also required to comply with cGMP regulations. We have personnel with significant technical, manufacturing, analytical, quality and project management experience to oversee our third-party CMOs and to manage manufacturing and quality data and information for regulatory compliance purposes.
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We must manufacture drug product for clinical trial use in compliance with cGMP regulations. The cGMP regulations include requirements relating to organization of personnel, buildings and facilities, equipment, control of components and drug product containers and closures, production and process controls, packaging and labeling controls, holding and distribution, laboratory controls, records and reports, and returned or salvaged products. Our third-party CMOs are also subject to periodic inspections of facilities by the FDA and other authorities, including procedures and operations used in the testing and manufacture of our products to assess our compliance with applicable regulations. Failure to comply with statutory and regulatory requirements subjects a manufacturer to possible legal or regulatory action, including warning letters, the seizure or recall of products, injunctions, consent decrees placing significant restrictions on or suspending manufacturing operations and civil and criminal penalties. These actions could have a material impact on the availability of our products. CMOs often encounter difficulties involving production yields, quality control and quality assurance, as well as shortages of qualified personnel.
We have not yet established a sales, marketing or product distribution infrastructure because our lead candidates are still in clinical development. We eventually may, however, choose to build (or obtain through strategic acquisition) our own sales and marketing team to commercialize some or all of our products if they receive FDA approval and if it is in our long -term interests. We have entered into an Option and License Agreement with BeiGene pursuant to which BeiGene has the right to manufacture and commercialize DKN-01 in Asia (excluding Japan), Australia, and New Zealand. We may choose to enter into distribution agreements with strategic partners with their own robust distribution channels for the United States, Europe, Japan, and other non-BeiGene territories.
Government Regulation and Product Approval
Government authorities in the United States, at the federal, state, and local level, and in other countries, extensively regulate, among other things, the research, development, testing, approval, manufacture, packaging, storage, recordkeeping, labeling, advertising, promotion, distribution, post-approval monitoring and reporting, marketing, import, and export of biopharmaceutical products such as those we are developing. In addition, manufacturers of biopharmaceutical products participating in Medicaid and Medicare are required to comply with mandatory price reporting, discount, and rebate requirements. The processes for obtaining regulatory approvals in the United States and in foreign countries, along with subsequent compliance with applicable statutes and regulations, require the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources. The following is a summary of the primary government regulations applicable to our business.
FDA Regulation
In the United States, the FDA regulates biologics under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, or FDCA, the Public Health Services Act, or PHSA, and their implementing regulations. Any product we may develop must be cleared by the FDA before it is marketed in the United States. The process required by the FDA before product candidates may be marketed in the United States generally involves the following:
● completion of preclinical laboratory tests, animal studies, and formulation studies in compliance with the FDA’s Good Laboratory Practice, or GLP, regulations;
● submission to the FDA of an Investigational New Drug application, or IND, which must become effective before human clinical trials may begin;
● approval by an Institutional Review Board, or IRB, for each clinical site, or centrally, before each trial may be initiated;
● adequate and well-controlled human clinical trials to establish the safety and efficacy of the proposed product candidates for its intended use, performed in accordance with GCPs;
● development of manufacturing processes to ensure the product candidate’s identity, strength, quality, and purity;
● submission to the FDA of a Biologics License Application, or BLA;
● satisfactory completion of an FDA advisory committee review, if applicable;
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● satisfactory completion of an FDA inspection of the manufacturing facility or facilities at which the products are produced to assess compliance with cGMPs, and to assure that the facilities, methods, and controls are adequate to preserve the therapeutic’s identity, strength, quality, and purity, as well as satisfactory completion of an FDA inspection of selected clinical sites and selected clinical investigators to determine GCP compliance; and
● FDA review and approval of the BLA to permit commercial marketing for particular indications for use.
Preclinical Studies and IND Submission
The testing and approval process of product candidates requires substantial time, effort, and financial resources. Satisfaction of FDA pre-market approval requirements typically takes many years and the actual time required may vary substantially based upon the type, complexity, and novelty of the product or disease. Preclinical studies include laboratory evaluation of chemistry, pharmacology, toxicity, and product formulation, as well as animal studies to assess potential safety and efficacy. Such studies must generally be conducted in accordance with the FDA’s GLPs. Prior to commencing the first clinical trial with a product candidate, an IND sponsor must submit the results of the preclinical tests and preclinical literature, together with manufacturing information, analytical data, any available clinical data or literature, and proposed clinical study protocols among other things, to the FDA as part of an IND.
An IND automatically becomes effective 30 days after receipt by the FDA, unless the FDA, within the 30-day time period, notifies the applicant of safety concerns or questions related to one or more proposed clinical trials and places the trial on a clinical hold. In such a case, the IND sponsor and the FDA must resolve any outstanding concerns before the clinical trial can begin. Clinical holds also may be imposed by the FDA at any time before or during trials due to safety concerns or non-compliance. As a result, submission of an IND may not result in FDA authorization to commence a clinical trial. A separate submission to an existing IND must also be made for each successive clinical trial conducted during product development.
Clinical Trials
Clinical trials involve the administration of the investigational product to human subjects under the supervision of qualified investigators in accordance with federal regulations and GCP requirements, which include the requirements that all research subjects provide their informed consent in writing for their participation in any clinical trial, as well as review and approval of the study by an IRB. Investigators must also provide certain information to the clinical trial sponsors to allow the sponsors to make certain financial disclosures to the FDA. Clinical trials are conducted under protocols detailing, among other things, the objectives of the trial, the trial procedures, the parameters to be used in monitoring safety, the effectiveness criteria to be evaluated, and a statistical analysis plan. A protocol for each clinical trial, and any subsequent protocol amendments, must be submitted to the FDA as part of the IND. In addition, an IRB at each study site participating in the clinical trial or a central IRB must review and approve the plan for any clinical trial, informed consent forms, and communications to study subjects before a study commences at that site. An IRB considers, among other things, whether the risks to individuals participating in the trials are minimized and are reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits and whether the planned human subject protections are adequate. The IRB must continue to oversee the clinical trial while it is being conducted. Once an IND is in effect, each new clinical protocol and any amendments to the protocol must be submitted to the IND for FDA review, and to the IRB for approval. Progress reports detailing the results of the clinical trials must also be submitted at least annually to the FDA and the IRB and more frequently if serious adverse events or other significant safety information is found.
The FDA may order the temporary, or permanent, discontinuation of a clinical trial at any time, or impose other sanctions, if it believes that the clinical trial either is not being conducted in accordance with FDA requirements or presents an unacceptable risk to the clinical trial patients. An IRB may also require the clinical trial at the site to be halted, either temporarily or permanently, for failure to comply with the IRB’s requirements or if the trial poses an unexpected serious harm to subjects, or may impose other conditions. We may also discontinue clinical trials as a result of risks to subjects, a lack of favorable results, or changing business priorities.
Information about certain clinical trials, including a description of the study and study results, must be submitted within specific timeframes to the National Institutes of Health, or NIH, for public dissemination on their clinicaltrials.gov website.
Additionally, some clinical trials are overseen by an independent group of qualified experts organized by the clinical trial sponsor, known as a data safety monitoring board or committee. This group regularly reviews accumulated data and advises the study sponsor regarding the continuing safety of trial subjects, potential trial subjects, and the continuing validity and scientific merit of the clinical
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trial. The data safety monitoring board receives special access to unblinded data during the clinical trial and may advise the sponsor to halt the clinical trial if it determines there is an unacceptable safety risk for subjects or on other grounds, such as no demonstration of efficacy.
The manufacture of investigational biologics for the conduct of human clinical trials is subject to cGMP requirements. Investigational biologics and active ingredients imported into the United States are also subject to regulation by the FDA relating to their labeling and distribution. Further, the export of investigational products outside of the United States is subject to regulatory requirements of the receiving country as well as U.S. export requirements under the FDCA.
In general, for purposes of BLA approval, human clinical trials are typically conducted in three sequential phases, which may overlap or be combined.
● Phase 1 — Studies are initially conducted in healthy human volunteers or subjects with the target disease or condition and test the product candidate for safety, dosage tolerance, target engagement, mechanism of action, absorption, metabolism, distribution, and excretion. If possible, Phase 1 trials may also be used to gain an initial indication of product effectiveness.
● Phase 2 — Controlled studies are conducted in limited subject populations with a specified disease or condition to evaluate preliminary efficacy, identify optimal dosages, dosage tolerance and schedule, possible adverse effects and safety risks, and expanded evidence of safety.
● Phase 3 — These adequate and well-controlled clinical trials are undertaken in expanded subject populations, generally at geographically dispersed clinical trial sites, to generate enough data to provide statistically significant evidence of clinical efficacy and safety of the product for approval, to establish the overall risk-benefit profile of the product, and to provide adequate information for the labeling of the product. Typically, two Phase 3 trials are required by the FDA for product approval.
The FDA may also require, or companies may conduct, additional clinical trials for the same indication after a product is approved. These so-called Phase 4 studies may be made a condition to be satisfied after approval. The results of Phase 4 studies can confirm the effectiveness of a product candidate and can provide important safety information.
Phase 1, Phase 2, and Phase 3 clinical trials may not be completed successfully within any specified period, or at all. Regulatory authorities, an IRB, or the sponsor may suspend or discontinue a clinical trial at any time on various grounds, including a finding that the subjects are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk, the clinical trial is not being conducted in accordance with the FDA’s or the IRB’s requirements, the product has been associated with unexpected serious harm to the subjects, or based on evolving business objectives or competitive climate.
Concurrent with clinical trials, companies usually complete additional animal studies and must also develop additional information about the chemistry and physical characteristics of the product candidate as well as finalize a process for manufacturing the product in commercial quantities in accordance with cGMP requirements. The manufacturing process must be capable of consistently producing quality batches of the product candidate and, among other things, must develop methods for testing the identity, strength, quality, potency, and purity of the final product. Additionally, appropriate packaging must be selected and tested, and stability studies must be conducted to demonstrate that the product candidate does not undergo unacceptable deterioration over its shelf life.
During the development of a new therapeutic, a sponsor may be able to request a Special Protocol Assessment, or SPA, the purpose of which is to reach agreement with the FDA on the Phase 3 clinical trial protocol design and analysis that will form the primary basis of product approval and an efficacy claim as well as preclinical carcinogenicity trials and stability studies. An SPA may only be modified with the agreement of the FDA and the trial sponsor, or if the director of the FDA reviewing division determines that a substantial scientific issue essential to determining the safety or efficacy of the product was identified after the testing began. An SPA is intended to provide assurance that, in the case of clinical trials, if the agreed upon clinical trial protocol is followed, the clinical trial endpoints are achieved, and there is a favorable risk-benefit profile, the data may serve as the primary basis for an efficacy claim in support of a BLA. However, SPA agreements are not a guarantee of an approval of a product candidate or any permissible claims about the product candidate. In particular, SPAs are not binding on the FDA if, among other reasons, previously unrecognized public
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health concerns arise during the performance of the clinical trial, other new scientific concerns regarding the product candidate’s safety or efficacy arise, or if the sponsoring company fails to comply with the agreed upon clinical trial protocol.
BLA Submission, Review by the FDA, and Marketing Approval
Assuming successful completion of the required clinical and preclinical testing, the results of product development, including chemistry, manufacture, and controls, non-clinical studies, and clinical trial results, including negative or ambiguous results as well as positive findings, are all submitted to the FDA, along with the proposed labeling, as part of a BLA requesting approval to market the product for one or more indications. In most cases, the submission of a BLA is subject to a substantial application user fee. These user fees must be paid at the time of the first submission of the application, even if the application is being submitted on a rolling basis. Fee waivers or reductions are available in certain circumstances. One basis for a waiver of the application user fee is if the applicant employs fewer than 500 employees, including employees of affiliates, the applicant does not have an approved marketing application for a product that has been introduced or delivered for introduction into interstate commerce, and the applicant, including its affiliates, is submitting its first marketing application. Product candidates that are designated as orphan drugs, which are further described below, are also not subject to application user fees unless the application includes an indication other than the orphan indication.
In addition, under the Pediatric Research Equity Act, or PREA, a BLA or supplement to a BLA for a new active ingredient, indication, dosage form, dosage regimen, or route of administration, must contain data that are adequate to assess the safety and effectiveness of the product for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations, and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the product is safe and effective. The FDA may, on its own initiative or at the request of the applicant, grant deferrals for submission of some or all pediatric data until after approval of the product for use in adults, or full or partial waivers from the pediatric data requirements.
The FDA also may require submission of a risk evaluation and mitigation strategy, or REMS, to ensure that the benefits of the biologic outweigh the risks. The REMS plan could include medication guides, physician communication plans, and elements to assure safe use, such as restricted distribution methods, patient registries, or other risk minimization tools. An assessment of the REMS must also be conducted at set intervals. Following product approval, a REMS may also be required by the FDA if new safety information is discovered and the FDA determines that a REMS is necessary to ensure that the benefits of the biologic outweigh the risks.
Once the FDA receives an application, it has 60 days to review the BLA to determine if it is substantially complete to permit a substantive review, before it accepts the application for filing. The FDA may request additional information rather than accept a BLA for filing. In this event, the application must be resubmitted with the additional information. The resubmitted application is also subject to review before the FDA accepts it for filing. Once the submission is accepted for filing, the FDA begins an in-depth substantive review.
Under the goals and policies agreed to by the FDA under the Prescription Drug User Fee Act, or PDUFA, the FDA has set the review goal of completing its review of 90% of all applications within ten months from the 60-day filing date for its initial review of an initial BLA. Such deadlines are referred to as the PDUFA date. The PDUFA date is only a goal, thus, the FDA does not always meet its PDUFA dates. The review process and the PDUFA date may also be extended if the FDA requests or the sponsor otherwise provides substantial additional information or clarification regarding the submission.
The FDA may also refer certain applications to an advisory committee. An advisory committee is typically a panel that includes clinicians and other experts, which reviews, evaluates, and makes a recommendation as to whether the application should be approved and under what conditions. The FDA is not bound by the recommendations of an advisory committee, but it considers such recommendations carefully when making decisions.
The FDA reviews applications to determine, among other things, whether a product is safe, pure and potent and whether the manufacturing methods and controls are adequate to assure and preserve the product’s identity, strength, quality, safety, potency, and purity. Before approving a BLA, the FDA typically will inspect the facility or facilities where the product is manufactured, referred to as a Pre-Approval Inspection. The FDA will not approve an application unless it determines that the manufacturing processes and facilities, including contract manufacturers and subcontractors, are in compliance with cGMP requirements and adequate to assure consistent production of the product within required specifications. Additionally, before approving a BLA, the FDA will inspect one or more clinical trial sites to assure compliance with GCPs.
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The approval process is lengthy and difficult, and the FDA may refuse to approve a BLA if the applicable regulatory criteria are not satisfied or may require additional clinical data or other data and information. Even if such data and information are submitted, the FDA may ultimately decide that the BLA does not satisfy the criteria for approval. Data obtained from clinical trials are not always conclusive and the FDA may interpret data differently than an applicant interprets the same data.
After evaluating the BLA and all related information, including the advisory committee recommendation, if any, and inspection reports regarding the manufacturing facilities and clinical trial sites, the FDA may issue an approval letter, or, in some cases, a Complete Response Letter, or CRL. If a CRL is issued, the applicant may either: resubmit the BLA, addressing all of the deficiencies identified in the letter; withdraw the application; or request an opportunity for a hearing. A CRL indicates that the review cycle of the application is complete, and the application is not ready for approval and describes all of the specific deficiencies that the FDA identified in the BLA. A CRL generally contains a statement of specific conditions that must be met in order to secure final approval of the BLA and may require additional clinical or preclinical testing in order for the FDA to reconsider the application. The deficiencies identified may be minor, for example, requiring labeling changes; or major, for example, requiring additional clinical trials. Even with submission of this additional information, the FDA ultimately may decide that the application does not satisfy the regulatory criteria for approval. If and when those conditions have been met to the FDA’s satisfaction, the FDA may issue an approval letter. An approval letter authorizes commercial marketing of the product with specific prescribing information for specific indications.
Even if the FDA approves a product, it may limit the approved indications for use of the product, require that contraindications, warnings, or precautions be included in the product labeling, including a boxed warning, require that post-approval studies, including Phase 4 clinical trials, be conducted to further assess a product’s safety and efficacy after approval, require testing and surveillance programs to monitor the product after commercialization, or impose other conditions, including distribution restrictions or other risk management mechanisms under a REMS which can materially affect the potential market and profitability of the product. The FDA may also not approve label statements that are necessary for successful commercialization and marketing.
After approval, some types of changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications, manufacturing changes, and additional labeling claims, are subject to further testing requirements and FDA review and approval. The FDA may also withdraw the product approval if compliance with the pre- and post-marketing regulatory standards is not maintained or if problems occur after the product reaches the marketplace. Further, should new safety information arise, additional testing, product labeling, or FDA notification may be required.
Biosimilars, Orphan Drugs, and Exclusivity
The Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act of 2009, or BPCIA, creates an abbreviated approval pathway for biological products shown to be highly similar to or interchangeable with an FDA-licensed reference biological product. Biosimilarity sufficient to reference a prior FDA-approved product requires a high similarity to the reference product notwithstanding minor differences in clinically inactive components, and no clinically meaningful differences between the biological product and the reference product in terms of safety, purity, and potency. Biosimilarity must be shown through analytical studies, animal studies, and at least one clinical trial, absent a waiver by the FDA. There must be no difference between the reference product and a biosimilar product in conditions of use, route of administration, dosage form, and strength. A biosimilar product may be deemed interchangeable with a prior approved product if it meets the higher hurdle of demonstrating that it can be expected to produce the same clinical results as the reference product and, for products administered multiple times, the biologic and the reference biologic may be switched after one has been previously administered without increasing safety risks or risks of diminished efficacy relative to exclusive use of the reference biologic. Complexities associated with the larger, and often more complex, structures of biological products, as well as the process by which such products are manufactured, pose significant hurdles to implementation which are still being evaluated by the FDA.
A reference biologic is granted 12 years of exclusivity from the time of first licensure of the reference product, and no application for a biosimilar can be submitted for four years from the date of licensure of the reference product. However, certain changes and supplements to an approved BLA, and subsequent applications filed by the same sponsor, manufacturer, licensor, predecessor in interest, or other related entity do not qualify for the twelve-year exclusivity period.
The Orphan Drug Act provides incentives for the development of products intended to treat rare diseases or conditions, which generally are diseases or conditions affecting less than 200,000 individuals annually in the United States, or affecting more than 200,000 in the United States and for which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making the product
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available in the United States will be recovered from United States sales. Additionally, sponsors must present a plausible hypothesis for clinical superiority to obtain orphan designation if there is a product already approved by the FDA that is intended for the same indication and that is considered by the FDA to be the same as the already approved product. This hypothesis must be demonstrated to obtain orphan exclusivity. If granted, prior to product approval, Orphan Designation entitles a party to financial incentives such as opportunities for grant funding towards clinical study costs, tax advantages, and user-fee waivers. In addition, if a product receives FDA approval for the indication for which it has orphan designation, the product is generally entitled to orphan exclusivity, which means the FDA may not approve any other application to market the same product for the same indication for a period of seven years, except in limited circumstances, such as a showing of clinical superiority over the product with orphan exclusivity.
Special FDA Expedited Review and Approval Programs
The FDA has various programs, including Fast Track designation, priority review, and breakthrough designation, that are intended to expedite or simplify the process for the development and FDA review of certain products that are intended for the treatment of serious or life threatening diseases or conditions, and demonstrate the potential to address unmet medical needs or present a significant improvement over existing therapy. The purpose of these programs is to provide important new therapeutics to patients earlier than under standard FDA review procedures.
To be eligible for a Fast Track designation, the FDA must determine, based on the request of a sponsor, that a product is intended to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition and demonstrates the potential to address an unmet medical need. The FDA will determine that a product will fill an unmet medical need if the product will provide a therapy where none exists or provide a therapy that may be potentially superior to existing therapies based on efficacy, safety, or public health factors. If Fast Track designation is obtained, sponsors may be eligible for more frequent development meetings and correspondence with the FDA. In addition, the FDA may initiate reviews of certain sections of an application before the application is complete. This “rolling review” is available if the applicant provides and the FDA approves a schedule for the remaining information. In some cases, a Fast Track product may be eligible for accelerated approval or priority review. On September 24, 2020 the FDA granted Fast Track designation to DKN-01 for the treatment of patients with gastric and gastroesophageal junction adenocarcinoma whose tumors express high DKK1, following disease progression on or after prior fluoropyrimidine- and platinum- containing chemotherapy and if appropriate, human epidermal receptor growth factor (HER2)/neu-targeted therapy.
The FDA may give a priority review designation to products that are intended to treat serious conditions and, if approved, would provide significant improvements in the safety or effectiveness of the treatment, diagnosis, or prevention of serious conditions. A priority review means that the goal for the FDA is to review an application within six months, rather than the standard review of ten months under current PDUFA guidelines, of the 60-day filing date.
Drug or biological products studied for their safety and effectiveness in treating serious or life-threatening illnesses and that provide meaningful therapeutic benefit over existing treatments may receive accelerated approval, which means the FDA may approve the product based upon a surrogate endpoint that is reasonably likely to predict clinical benefit, or on a clinical endpoint that can be measured earlier than irreversible morbidity or mortality, that is reasonably likely to predict an effect on irreversible morbidity or mortality or other clinical benefit, taking into account the severity, rarity, or prevalence of the condition and the availability or lack of alternative treatments. A drug or biologic candidate approved on this basis is subject to rigorous post-marketing compliance requirements, including the completion of Phase 4 or post-approval clinical trials to confirm the effect on the clinical endpoint. Failure to conduct required post-approval studies, or confirm a clinical benefit during post-marketing studies, will allow the FDA to withdraw the drug or biologic from the market on an expedited basis. All promotional materials for drug or biologic candidates approved under accelerated regulations are subject to prior review by the FDA.
Moreover, under the provisions of the Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act, or FDASIA, enacted in 2012, a sponsor can request designation of a product candidate as a “breakthrough therapy”. A breakthrough therapy is defined as a product that is intended, alone or in combination with one or more other products, to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition, and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the product may demonstrate substantial improvement over existing therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints, such as substantial treatment effects observed early in clinical development. Products designated as breakthrough therapies are eligible for the Fast Track designation features as described above, intensive guidance on an efficient development program beginning as early as Phase 1 trials, and a commitment from the FDA to involve senior managers and experienced review staff in a proactive collaborative, cross-disciplinary review.
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Even if a product qualifies for one or more of these programs, the FDA may later decide that the product no longer meets the conditions for qualification or decide that the time period for FDA review or approval will not be shortened.
Post- approval Requirements
Any products manufactured or distributed pursuant to FDA approvals are subject to pervasive and continuing regulation by the FDA, including, among other things, requirements related to manufacturing, recordkeeping, and reporting, including adverse experience reporting, shortage reporting, and periodic reporting, product sampling and distribution, advertising, marketing, promotion, certain electronic records and signatures, and post-approval obligations imposed as a condition of approval, such as Phase 4 clinical trials, REMS, and surveillance to assess safety and effectiveness after commercialization.
After approval, most changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications or other labeling claims, are subject to prior FDA review and approval. There also are continuing annual user fee requirements for any marketed products and the establishments at which such products are manufactured, as well as new application fees for supplemental applications with clinical data. In addition, manufacturers and other entities involved in the manufacture and distribution of approved therapeutics are required to register their establishments with the FDA and certain state agencies, list their products, and are subject to periodic announced and unannounced inspections by the FDA and these state agencies for compliance with cGMP and other requirements, which impose certain procedural and documentation requirements upon a company and its third-party manufacturers. Manufacturers must continue to expend time, money, and effort in the areas of production and quality -control to maintain compliance with cGMPs. Regulatory authorities may withdraw product approvals or request product recalls if a company fails to comply with regulatory standards, if it encounters problems following initial marketing, or if previously unrecognized problems are subsequently discovered.
Changes to the manufacturing process are strictly regulated and often require prior FDA approval or notification before being implemented. FDA regulations also require investigation and correction of any deviations from cGMP and specifications, and impose reporting and documentation requirements upon the sponsor and any third-party manufacturers that the sponsor may decide to use. Accordingly, manufacturers must continue to expend time, money, and effort in the area of production and quality control to maintain cGMP compliance.
Moreover, the enacted Drug Quality and Security Act, or DQSA, imposes obligations on manufacturers of biopharmaceutical products related to product tracking and tracing. Among the requirements of this legislation, manufacturers are required to provide certain information regarding the products to individuals and entities to which product ownership is transferred, will be required to label products with a product identifier, and are required to keep certain records regarding the product. The transfer of information to subsequent product owners by manufacturers will eventually be required to be done electronically. Manufacturers must also verify that purchasers of the manufacturers’ products are appropriately licensed. Further, under this legislation, manufacturers will have product investigation, quarantine, disposition, and notification responsibilities related to counterfeit, diverted, stolen, and intentionally adulterated products that would result in serious adverse health consequences of death to humans, as well as products that are the subject of fraudulent transactions or which are otherwise unfit for distribution such that they would be reasonably likely to result in serious health consequences or death. Similar requirements additionally are and will be imposed through this legislation on other companies within the biopharmaceutical product supply chain, such as distributors and dispensers.
Adverse event reporting and the submission of periodic reports, including annual reports and deviation reports, are required following FDA approval of a BLA. Later discovery of previously unknown problems with a product, including adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or with manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may result in significant regulatory actions. Such actions may include refusal to approve pending applications, license suspension or revocation, withdrawal of an approval, imposition of a clinical hold or termination of clinical trials, warning letters, untitled letters, cyber letters, modification of promotional materials or labeling, provision of corrective information, imposition of post-market requirements including the need for additional testing, imposition of distribution or other restrictions under a REMS, product recalls, product seizures or detentions, refusal to allow imports or exports, total or partial suspension of production or distribution, FDA debarment, injunctions, fines, consent decrees, corporate integrity agreements, debarment from receiving government contracts, and new orders under existing contracts, exclusion from participation in federal and state healthcare programs, restitution, disgorgement, or civil or criminal penalties, including fines and imprisonment, and result in adverse publicity, among other adverse consequences.
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Other Regulation
In addition to any FDA restrictions on marketing and promotion of drugs and devices, other federal and state laws restrict our business practice including, without limitation, anti-kickback and false claims laws, data privacy and security laws, as well as transparency laws regarding payment or other items of value provided to healthcare providers. Future legislative proposals to reform healthcare may also impact us.
We are also governed by other federal, state and local laws of general applicability, such as laws regulating working conditions, employment practices, as well as environmental protection.
Research and Development Expenses
Our total research and development expenses were $32.2 million and $20.4 million, during the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020, respectively. See Part II — Item 7 — “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” of this Annual Report on Form 10-K for additional detail regarding our research and development activities.
Employees
As of December 31, 2021, we had 36 full-time employees, including 25 in research and development and 11 in general and administrative roles. None of our employees are represented by a labor union or subject to a collective bargaining agreement. We have not experienced a work stoppage and consider our relations with our employees to be good.
Web Availability
We make available free of charge through our website, www.leaptx.com, our Annual Report on Form 10-K, other reports that we file with the Securities and Exchange Commission and any amendments to the reports filed or furnished pursuant to Sections 13(a) and 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”), as well as certain of our corporate governance policies, including the charters for the audit, compensation and nominating and governance committees of our board of directors and our code of ethics and corporate governance guidelines. We make these reports available as soon as reasonably practicable after they are filed with or furnished to the SEC. The information contained on, or that can be accessed through our website is not a part of or incorporated by reference into this Annual Report on Form 10-K. We will also provide to any person without charge, upon request, a copy of any of the foregoing materials. Any such request must be made in writing to us at: Leap Therapeutics, Inc. c/o Investor Relations, 47 Thorndike Street, Suite B1, Cambridge, MA 02141.