Amylyx Pharmaceuticals, Inc. 10-K

Item 5. Market for Registrant’s Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities. Market Information Our common stock began trading on The Nasdaq Global Select Market on January 7, 2022, under the symbol “AMLX.” Prior to that time, there was no public market for our common stock. Holders of Record As of March 21, 2022, we had approximately 131 holders of record of our common stock. Certain shares are held in “street” name and accordingly, the number of beneficial owners of such shares is not known or included in the foregoing number. This number of holders of record also does not include stockholders whose shares may be held in trust by other entities. Dividend Policy We have never declared or paid a dividend on our common stock, and we do not anticipate declaring or paying dividends on our common stock in the foreseeable future. We currently intend to retain our future earnings, if any, to fund the development and growth of our business. Securities Authorized for Issuance under Equity Compensation Plans The information required by Item 5 of Form 10-K regarding equity compensation plans is incorporated herein by reference to Item 12 of Part III of this Annual Report. Purchases of Equity Securities by the Issuer and Affiliated Purchasers We did not purchase any of our registered equity during the period covered by this Annual Report. Unregistered Sales of Securities and Use of Proceeds Recent Sales of Unregistered Securities In the three years preceding the filing of this Form 10-K, we have issued the following securities that were not registered under the Securities Act: (a) Issuances of Convertible Notes From January 27, 2021 to February 9, 2021, we issued convertible promissory notes to various investors in the principal amount of $27,320,508.40. No underwriters were involved in the foregoing issuances of securities. The securities were issued to investors in reliance upon the exemption from the registration requirements of the Securities Act, as set forth in Section 4(a)(2) under the Securities Act and Regulation D promulgated thereunder relative to transactions by an issuer not involving any public offering, to the extent an exemption from such registration was required. The recipients of securities in the transactions described above represented that they were accredited investors and were acquiring the securities for their own account for investment purposes only and not with a view to, or for sale in connection with, any distribution thereof and that they could bear the risks of the investment and could hold the securities for an indefinite period of time and appropriate legends were affixed to the instruments representing such securities issued in such transactions. 108 (b) Issuances of Capital Stock In July 2021, we issued and sold an aggregate of 13,150,430 shares of Series C-1 preferred stock at a price per share of $10.265809 and 3,170,585 shares of Series C-2 preferred stock at a price per share of $8.725938, for an aggregate purchase price of approximately $162.7 million. Included in this amount was approximately $27.7 million of outstanding principal and interest on the convertible promissory notes issued between January 2021 and February 2021, all of which converted into Series C-2 preferred stock in this financing in accordance with their terms. No underwriters were involved in the foregoing issuance of securities. The securities were issued to investors in reliance upon the exemption from the registration requirements of the Securities Act, as set forth in Section 4(a)(2) under the Securities Act and Regulation D promulgated thereunder relative to transactions by an issuer not involving any public offering, to the extent an exemption from such registration was required. The recipients of securities in the transactions described above represented that they were accredited investors and were acquiring the securities for their own account for investment purposes only and not with a view to, or for sale in connection with, any distribution thereof and that they could bear the risks of the investment and could hold the securities for an indefinite period of time and appropriate legends were affixed to the instruments representing such securities issued in such transactions. (c) Stock Option Grants and Option Exercises From January 1, 2021 to December 31, 2021 we granted options to purchase an aggregate of 3,377,200 shares of common stock, with exercise prices ranging from $6.88 to $8.47 per share, to employees, directors, and consultants pursuant to our 2015 Plan. Of these, options for 167,000 shares have been terminated, options for 883,281 shares have been exercised, and options for 5,339,011 shares remain outstanding. No underwriters were involved in the foregoing issuances of securities. The stock options were issued pursuant to written compensatory plans or arrangements with our employees, directors, consultants and advisors, in reliance on the exemption provided by Rule 701 promulgated under the Securities Act, or pursuant to Section 4(a)(2) under the Securities Act, relative to transactions by an issuer not involving any public offering, to the extent an exemption from such registration was required. All recipients either received adequate information about us or had access, through employment or other relationships, to such information. Use of Proceeds from Initial Public Offering On January 11, 2022, we completed the IPO of our common stock pursuant to which we issued and sold 11,369,369 shares of our common stock, including the partial exercise by the underwriters of their option to purchase up to 1,500,000 additional shares of common stock, at a public offering price of $19.00 per share. The offer and sale of all of the shares of our common stock in our IPO were registered under the Securities Act pursuant to a registration statement on Form S-1, as amended (File No. 333-261703) and the related registration statement on Form S-1 (File No. 333-262046), which were declared effective by the SEC on January 6, 2022. Goldman Sachs & Co. LLC, SVB Leerink LLC and Evercore Group L.L.C. acted as joint book-running managers of the offering and as representatives of the underwriters. We received aggregate gross proceeds from our IPO of $216.0 million, or aggregate net proceeds of $196.9 million after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and other offering costs, including the partial exercise by the underwriters of their option to purchase additional shares. None of the underwriting discounts and commissions or offering expenses were incurred or paid, directly or indirectly, to any of our directors or officers or their associates or to persons owning 10% or more of our common stock or to any of our affiliates. There has been no material change in our planned use of the net proceeds from the IPO as described in our Prospectus dated January 6, 2022. 109 Item 6. Reserved 110 Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations. The following information should be read in conjunction with the consolidated financial information and the notes thereto appearing elsewhere in this Annual Report. This discussion and other parts of this Annual Report contain forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties, such as statements of our plans, objectives, expectations and intentions. As a result of many factors, including those factors set forth in the “Risk Factors” section of this Annual Report, our actual results could differ materially from the results described in or implied by the forward-looking statements contained in the following discussion and analysis . Overview Our mission is to develop therapies that change the treatment paradigm for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS, and a broad range of other neurodegenerative diseases by keeping neurons alive. Unlike most other cells in the body that regularly die and are replaced as part of healthy function, mature neurons are normally resistant to cell death and generally cannot regenerate. We are pursuing commercialization of our product candidate, AMX0035, which we believe is the first drug candidate to show both a functional and survival benefit in a large-scale clinical trial of patients with ALS. We submitted a New Drug Submission, or NDS, in Canada in the second quarter of 2021 for AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS, which was accepted for review in the third quarter of 2021, a New Drug Application, or NDA, to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, in the fourth quarter of 2021, which was accepted for priority review in the same quarter and a Marketing Authorization Application, or MAA, in Europe in the first quarter of 2022, which was validated in the same quarter. The Prescription Drug User Fee Act date, the target date by which the FDA intends to complete its review and take action on the NDA for AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS, is June 29, 2022. On March 30, 2022, the FDA held a virtual meeting of its Peripheral and Central Nervous System Drugs Advisory Committee, or the Advisory Committee. At that meeting, on the question whether the data from our randomized, controlled Phase 2 CENTAUR trial and open-label extension, or OLE, trial established a conclusion that AMX0035 is effective in the treatment of patients with ALS, the Advisory Committee voted 4 (yes) and 6 (no). Although the FDA considers the recommendations of its advisory committees, the recommendation by the Advisory Committee is non-binding. The final decision regarding approval of a pending NDA is made by the FDA, and we remain committed to pursuing its approval given the pressing need for new treatments for ALS. The Prescription Drug User Fee Act date, the target date by which the FDA intends to complete its review and take action on the NDA for AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS, is June 29, 2022. We believe AMX0035 has the potential to be a foundational therapy, meaning that it could be used alone or in conjunction with other therapies to change the treatment paradigm across a broad range of neurodegenerative diseases. AMX0035 is a dual UPR-Bax apoptosis inhibitor composed of sodium phenylbutyrate, or PB, and TURSO (also known as tauroursodeoxycholic acid, or TUDCA). Through the resolution of the unfolded protein response, or UPR, and by inhibiting translocation of the Bcl-2 Associated X-protein, or Bax, to the outer mitochondrial membrane, we have shown in multiple models that AMX0035 can keep neurons alive under a variety of different conditions and stresses, including in in vitro models of neurodegeneration, endoplasmic reticulum stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and disease-specific models of a variety of other conditions, as well as in vivo models of Alzheimer’s Disease, or AD, and multiple sclerosis. We are pursuing ALS as our first indication as it is a disease of rapid and profound neurodegeneration, and we are focused on the development and potential commercialization of AMX0035 for ALS globally. In November 2021, we initiated a global Phase 3 clinical trial of AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS, known as the PHOENIX trial, at clinical trial sites in the United States and Europe. Enrollment in this trial has completed in the United States and remains ongoing in Europe. This trial is designed to provide further data supporting the safety and efficacy of AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS and to further support our global regulatory efforts. Based on dialogue with the FDA prior to our NDA submission, including at a pre-NDA meeting recommended by the FDA and subsequent discussions, we believed that data from the PHOENIX trial would not be required for the FDA to make a determination on the approval of AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS, although we had no assurance that the FDA would not require further data before making a determination. Based on the Advisory Committee meeting held on March 30, 2022, and the FDA’s feedback at that meeting, it remains uncertain whether additional clinical data will be required to make a determination on the approval of AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS. On March 18, 2022, we also announced the launch of a United States expanded access program that the FDA has authorized for people with ALS who meet eligibility criteria for participation. We were incorporated under the laws of the State of Delaware on January 10, 2014. In October 2020 and August 2021, we created wholly owned subsidiaries, Amylyx Pharmaceuticals Canada, Inc., or Amylyx Canada, in Calgary, Canada and Amylyx Pharmaceuticals EMEA B.V, or Amylyx EMEA, in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Since inception, we have devoted 111 substantially all of our efforts to research and development activities, including recruiting management and technical staff, raising capital, producing materials for non-clinical and clinical studies, and building infrastructure to support such activities. Our expenses have primarily been for research and development and related general and administrative costs. We have generated revenues through five grants from ALS Association, ALS Finding a Cure Foundation, Cure Alzheimer’s Fund, Alzheimer’s Drug Discovery Foundation and Alzheimer’s Association, or the Grantors. Since inception, we have financed our operations primarily through the sale and issuance of redeemable convertible preferred stock, convertible notes, PPP loan, and grant agreements with the Grantors and, to a lesser extent, a government loan. From August 2016 to November 2017, we issued and sold Series A preferred stock for an aggregate purchase price of approximately $7.7 million. In July 2017, we received $2.3 million from the issuance of convertible promissory notes, or the 2017 Notes. In November 2018, we received $13.0 million from the issuance of convertible promissory notes, or the 2018 Notes. In December 2019, we received $0.6 million from the issuance of convertible promissory notes, or the 2019 Notes. In January, February, and April 2020, we received $15.4 million in aggregate from the issuance of convertible promissory notes, or the 2020 Notes. The 2017 Notes, 2018 Notes, 2019 Notes and 2020 Notes, or the Old Notes, were to mature on December 31, 2021. We also received $0.3 million of net proceeds in April 2020 pursuant to the PPP Loan, which we repaid in full in October 2021. In June 2020, we issued and sold shares of Series B preferred stock for an aggregate purchase price of approximately $30.0 million. The Old Notes automatically converted into shares of Series B preferred stock pursuant to their original terms in June 2020 in connection with our Series B financing. From December 2020 to February 2021, we received $27.3 million from the issuance of convertible promissory notes, or the 2021 Notes, of which $1.2 million was received in December 2020 and $26.1 million was received in January and February 2021. In July 2021, we issued and sold shares of Series C-1 preferred stock, or the Series C-1 preferred stock, for an aggregate purchase price of approximately $135.0 million. The 2021 Notes automatically converted into shares of Series C-2 preferred stock pursuant to their original terms in July 2021 in connection with our sale of Series C-1 preferred stock. Grant revenue was $0.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2021, compared to $0.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2020. On January 11, 2022, we completed the initial public offering, or IPO, of our common stock pursuant to which we received aggregate net proceeds of $196.9 million after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and other offering costs. We have incurred operating losses since inception, including a net loss of $87.9 million and $42.3 million for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020, respectively. As of December 31, 2021, we had an accumulated deficit of $155.8 million. These losses have resulted primarily from costs incurred in connection with research and development activities and general and administrative costs associated with our operations. We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and increasing operating losses for the foreseeable future as we advance AMX0035 and any future product candidates through preclinical and clinical development, hire additional clinical, scientific, management and administrative personnel, seek regulatory approval and pursue commercialization of any approved product candidates. To date, we have primarily developed AMX0035 internally, with assistance from our network of contract research organizations, or CROs, and other advisors. This has resulted in increased research and development spending but has enabled us to manage AMX0035 efficiently through the development and manufacturing process. We expect to incur additional costs associated with operating as a public company, including significant legal, accounting, investor relations and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company. As a result, we will need substantial additional funding to support our continuing operations and pursue our growth strategy. Until such time as we can generate significant revenue from product sales, if ever, we expect to finance our operations through the sale of equity, debt financings or other capital sources, including potential collaborations with other companies, royalty financings, or other strategic transactions. Our inability to raise capital as and when needed could have a negative impact on our financial condition and ability to pursue our business strategies. There can be no assurances, however, that the current operating plan will be achieved or that additional funding will be available on terms acceptable to us, or at all. As of December 31, 2021, we had cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments of $96.1 million. We believe that our existing cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments, together with the net proceeds from our IPO, will be sufficient to meet our anticipated operating and capital expenditure requirements for at least twelve months after the date of the filing of this Annual Report. We have based this estimate on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could exhaust our available capital resources sooner than we expect. See “—Liquidity and Capital Resources—Funding Requirements” below. Impact of COVID-19 The development of AMX0035 and any future product candidates could be disrupted and materially adversely affected in the future by a pandemic, epidemic or outbreak of an infectious disease, such as the ongoing and evolving 112 COVID-19 pandemic. The spread of COVID-19 and identification of new variants of the virus has impacted the global economy and our operations, including requiring us to make certain alterations to our preclinical and clinical trial activities, such as scheduling certain work off-site and performing off-site assessments. In addition, we had to amend our CENTAUR trial protocol to allow for remote visits by patients, instead of patients making site visits and in certain cases we were forced to delay enrollment at certain sites in our Phase 2 clinical trial for AMX0035 in AD. In spite of current rate and success of vaccination efforts, if the disruption due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic continues, our ongoing global Phase 3 PHOENIX clinical trial for AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS could be delayed due to government orders and site policies on account of the pandemic. Additionally, some patients may be unwilling or unable to travel to study sites, enroll in our trials or be unable to comply with clinical trial protocols, which would delay our ability to conduct preclinical studies and clinical trials or release clinical trial results, as well as delay our ability to obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize AMX0035. Furthermore, COVID-19 could continue to affect our employees or the employees of research sites and service providers on whom we rely as well as those of companies with which we do business, including our suppliers, thereby disrupting our business operations. Existing or renewed quarantines and travel restrictions imposed by governments in the jurisdictions in which we and the companies with which we do business operate could materially impact the ability of employees to access preclinical and clinical sites, laboratories, manufacturing sites and offices. We have implemented and continue to follow work-at-home policies and may experience limitations in employee resources. Our continued reliance on personnel working from home may negatively impact productivity, or disrupt, delay or otherwise adversely impact our business. PPP Loan In April 2020, the Company obtained a PPP Loan from First Republic Bank in the aggregate amount of $0.3 million, which was established under the CARES Act. Under the terms of the CARES Act and the PPP, all or a portion of the principal amount of the PPP Loan is subject to forgiveness so long as, over the 24-week period following the Company’s receipt of the proceeds of the PPP Loan, the Company uses those proceeds for payroll costs, rent, utility costs or the maintenance of employee and compensation levels. The PPP Loan is unsecured, guaranteed by the Small Business Administration (“SBA”), and has a two-year term, maturing in April 2022. Interest accrues on the PPP Loan beginning with the initial disbursement. The application for the forgiveness of the PPP Loan can be made during an 8-week period beginning from the date of initial disbursement. Unless forgiven in whole or in part in accordance with the PPP regulation, the terms of the PPP Loan provide for the Company to make monthly payments of the principal and interest on the outstanding principal balance of the PPP Loan equal to the balance of the PPP Loan amortized over the term of the PPP Loan beginning seven (7) months from the initial disbursement until maturity. Notwithstanding the forgiveness of the PPP Loan, on October 7, 2021, we repaid the PPP Loan in full. Components of Our Results of Operations Revenue Our revenue to date has been comprised of grant revenue, which are amounts earned from performing contracted research and development services. These grants generally require us to meet certain research milestones in order for funds to be provided. To date, we have not generated any revenue from product sales. If our development efforts for AMX0035 or any future product candidates are successful and result in regulatory approval, or if we enter into collaboration or license agreements with third parties, we may generate revenue in the future from product sales or payments from such collaboration or license agreements, or a combination of product sales and payments from such agreements. 113 Operating Expenses Research and Development Expenses Research and development expenses consist primarily of costs incurred in connection with the research and development of AMX0035. We expense research and development costs as incurred. These expenses include: • expenses incurred under agreements with CROs, contract manufacturing organizations, or CMOs, as well as investigative sites and consultants that conduct our clinical trials, preclinical studies and other scientific development services; • manufacturing scale-up expenses and the cost of acquiring and manufacturing preclinical studies, including manufacturing registration and validation batches, as well as clinical trial materials; • expenses to acquire technologies to be used in research and development; • employee-related expenses, including salaries, payroll taxes, related benefits and stock-based compensation expense for employees engaged in research and development functions; and • costs related to compliance with quality and regulatory requirements. Advance payments that we make for goods or services to be received in the future for use in research and development activities are recorded as prepaid expenses. Such amounts are recognized as an expense as the goods are delivered or the related services are performed, or until it is no longer expected that the goods will be delivered, or the services rendered. Certain of our indirect research and development expenses are not tracked on an indication-by-indication basis for AMX0035. We do not allocate employee costs and facilities, including depreciation or other indirect costs, to specific indications because these costs are deployed across multiple indications and, as such, are not separately classified. We use internal resources to oversee the research and discovery as well as to manage our preclinical development, process development, manufacturing and clinical development activities. These employees work across multiple indications and, therefore, we do not track their costs by indication. Research and development activities are central to our business model. Product candidates such as AMX0035 in later stages of clinical development generally have higher development costs than those in earlier stages of clinical development, primarily due to the increased size and duration of later-stage clinical trials and related product manufacturing expenses. We expect that our research and development expenses will increase substantially in connection with our planned clinical development activities in the near term and in the future. At this time, we cannot accurately estimate or know the nature, timing and costs of the efforts that will be necessary to complete the clinical development of AMX0035 and any future product candidates. Our clinical development costs may vary significantly based on factors such as: • per patient trial costs; • the number of trials required for approval; • the number of sites included in the trials; • the countries in which the trials are conducted; • the length of time required to enroll eligible patients; • the number of patients that participate in the trials; • the number of doses that patients receive; • the drop-out or discontinuation rates of patients; • potential additional safety monitoring requested by regulatory agencies; • the duration of patient participation in the trials and follow-up periods; • the cost and timing of manufacturing our current or future product candidates; • the phase of development of our current or future product candidates; 114 • the efficacy and safety profile of our current or future product candidates; and • the number of product candidates we are developing. The successful development and commercialization of AMX0035 and any future product candidates is highly uncertain, due to the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with product development and commercialization, including the following: • the timing and progress of nonclinical and clinical development activities; • the number and scope of nonclinical and clinical trials for separate indications we decide to pursue; • raising necessary additional funds; • the progress of the development efforts of parties with whom we may enter into collaboration arrangements; • our ability to maintain our current development activities and to establish new ones; • our ability to establish new licensing or collaboration arrangements; • the successful initiation and completion of clinical trials with safety, tolerability and efficacy profiles that are satisfactory to Health Canada, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or the FDA, the European Medicines Association, or the EMA, or any other comparable foreign regulatory authority; • the receipt and related terms of regulatory approvals from applicable regulatory authorities; • the availability of drug substance and drug product for use in production of AMX0035; • establishing and maintaining agreements with third-party manufacturers for clinical supply for our clinical trials and commercial manufacturing, if AMX0035 is approved; • our ability to obtain and maintain patents, trade secret protection and regulatory exclusivity, both in the United States and internationally; • our ability to protect our rights in our intellectual property portfolio; • the commercialization of AMX0035, if and when approved; • obtaining and maintaining third-party insurance coverage and adequate reimbursement; • the acceptance of AMX0035, if approved, by patients, the medical community and third-party payors; • competition with other product; and • a continued acceptable safety profile of our therapies following approval. A change in the outcome of any of these variables with respect to the development of AMX0035 or any future product candidates. We may never succeed in obtaining regulatory approval for AMX0035 or any future product candidates. General and Administrative Expenses General and administrative expenses consist primarily of salaries and related costs for personnel in executive, finance, sales, marketing, as well as administrative functions. General and administrative expenses also include legal fees relating to patent and corporate matters; professional fees for accounting, auditing, tax and administrative consulting services; insurance costs; administrative travel expenses; marketing expenses; rent expense and other operating costs. We anticipate that our general and administrative expenses will continue to increase in the future as we further increase our headcount to support our continued research activities and development of AMX0035 and as we continue to increase headcount and incur other significant costs related to our pre-commercialization activities as we prepare for potential near term regulatory approvals. We also anticipate that we will incur increased accounting, audit, legal, regulatory, compliance, and director and officer insurance costs as well as investor and public relations expenses associated with being a public company. Additionally, we are pursuing regulatory approval of AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS, initially in Canada, the United States and Europe. As we prepare for a potential approval in each territory, we have incurred increased, and anticipate further increases in, payroll and expense as a result of our preparation for commercial operations, especially as it relates to the sales and marketing of AMX0035. 115 Other Income (Expense), Net Interest Expense Interest expense consists of coupon interests and amortization of derivative discounts associated with our Old Notes. Also, included in interest expense is a contingent beneficial conversion feature recorded upon conversion of our 2017 Notes into shares of Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock and the immediate charge to interest expense for the remaining unamortized debt discount associated with our 2017 Notes upon conversion. Interest Income Interest income consists of interest income earned on our cash and cash equivalents, and money market funds. Other (Expense) Income, Net Other (expense) income, net consists primarily of (i) extinguishment gain from the conversion of our 2019 Notes and 2020 Notes into Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock in June 2020, (ii) the amortization of premiums and accretion of discounts on our short-term investments, (iii) income from our short-term investments and (iv) unrealized gain on foreign exchange transactions. Change in Fair Value of Derivative Liability Change in fair value of derivative liability is comprised of adjustments to the fair value of embedded derivatives associated with certain redemption features of our Old Notes. The Old Notes contain redemption features which we determined were embedded derivatives. For the respective Old Notes, we bundled these features together and accounted for the feature as a single, compound embedded derivative at each issuance. The embedded derivative was recorded as a liability and measured at fair value at inception of the Old Notes. The fair value was remeasured at the end of each reporting period and immediately prior to the conversion of the Old Notes. Changes in the estimated fair value during the period were recorded as a component of other income (expense). Subsequent to June 2020, when the Old Notes converted into shares of our Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock, we no longer have an outstanding embedded derivative liability. Prior to such conversion, the embedded derivative liability was recorded at fair value utilizing an income approach that identified the cash flows using a “with-and-without” valuation methodology. The inputs used to determine the estimated fair value of the derivative instrument were based primarily on the probability of an underlying event triggering the embedded derivative occurring and the timing of such event. Change in Fair Value of Convertible Notes Change in fair value of convertible notes is comprised of adjustments to the fair value of our 2021 Notes. As permitted under ASC Topic 825, Financial Instruments (ASC 825), we elected the fair value option to account for our 2021 Notes, and as a result, we measured our 2021 Notes at fair value at each financial reporting period and immediately before conversion in July 2021. All changes to the fair value of our 2021 Notes for the year ended December 31, 2021 resulted in a loss. Our 2021 Notes converted into shares of Series C-2 redeemable convertible preferred stock concurrently with the issuance of our Series C-1 redeemable convertible preferred stock. Immediately prior to the conversion, we determined the fair value of our 2021 Notes based on the fair value of the Series C-1 redeemable convertible preferred stock and the conversion price at which these notes converted, which was at 85% of the fair value of the Series C-1 redeemable convertible preferred stock. Income Taxes The provision for income taxes primarily consists of state minimum taxes in the United States, which do not fluctuate when there is a pre-tax loss. Since our inception, we have incurred significant net losses and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future. Therefore, we do not know whether or when we will generate the U.S. federal or state taxable income necessary to utilize our Net Operating Losses, or NOLs, or research and development tax credits. 116 As of December 31, 2021 and 2020, we had federal net operating loss carryforwards of approximately $115.7 million and $46.8 million, respectively, and state net operating loss carryforwards of approximately $102.9 million and $44.9 million, respectively, which are available to reduce future taxable income. Of the $115.7 million federal net operating loss carryforwards, $1.3 million begin to expire in 2034 and the remaining $114.5 million net operating losses carryforward indefinitely. Of the $102.9 million state net operating loss carryforwards, $101.1 million of Massachusetts net operating loss carryforwards begin to expire in 2034. As of December 31, 2021 and 2020, we also had federal tax credits of $2.7 million and $1.6 million, respectively, and state tax credits of $1.2 million and $0.7 million, respectively. The tax credit carryforwards will expire at various dates beginning in 2029. 117 Results of Operations Comparison of the Years Ended December 31, 2021 and 2020 The following table summarizes our results of operations for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020: Year Ended December 31, 2021 2020 $ Change % Change (in thousands) Grant revenue $ 285 $ 650 $ (365 ) (56 )% Operating expenses: Research and development 44,040 24,594 19,446 79 % General and administrative 38,933 15,061 23,872 159 % Total operating expenses 82,973 39,655 43,318 109 % Loss from operations (82,688 ) (39,005 ) (43,683 ) 112 % Other income (expense), net: Interest income 36 14 22 157 % Interest expense — (2,288 ) 2,288 (100 )% Change in fair value of derivative liability — (1,270 ) 1,270 (100 )% Change in fair value of convertible notes (5,228 ) — (5,228 ) *NM Other (expense) income, net (51 ) 269 (320 ) (119 )% Total other expense, net (5,243 ) (3,275 ) (1,968 ) 60 % Net loss (87,931 ) (42,280 ) (45,651 ) 108 % * NM - not meaningful Grant Revenue Grant revenue was $0.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2021, compared to $0.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2020. The decrease of $0.4 million was primarily due to less contracted research and development services being performed during the year ended December 31, 2021 than during the year ended December 31, 2020. We performed less contracted research and development services in 2021 as compared to 2020 based on the terms of the grant agreements with our Grantors. Our grant agreements provide estimated timelines over which contracted research and development services would be provided to the Grantors. As less research and development services were scheduled to be provided in 2021, this resulted in the recognition of less revenue during the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to 2020. Research and Development Expenses The following table summarizes our research and development expenses for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020: Year Ended December 31, 2021 2020 $ Change % Change (in thousands) AMX0035 - ALS $ 25,756 $ 12,493 $ 13,263 106 % Payroll and personnel-related 8,972 3,326 5,646 170 % Other 9,312 8,775 537 6 % $ 44,040 $ 24,594 $ 19,446 79 % Research and development expenses were $44.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2021, compared to $24.6 million for the year ended December 31, 2020. During these years, all our research and development expenses were related to the development of and clinical trials of AMX0035. The increase of $19.4 million was primarily due to a $13.3 million increase in spending on AMX0035 for the ALS indication, a $5.6 million increase in payroll and personnel-related costs, and a $0.5 million increase in all other costs. The increases in spending on AMX0035 were primarily related to costs associated with our Phase 3 Phoenix trial of AMX0035 in ALS that commenced in 2021 and consulting and manufacturing development expenses in anticipation of potential commercialization. The increase in payroll and personnel-related costs was primarily due to an increase in the number of employees supporting research and development efforts. Increase in the other costs is primarily due to an increase in consulting costs in support of research and development activities in 2021. 118 General and Administrative Expenses General and administrative expenses were $38.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2021 compared to $15.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2020. The increase of $23.9 million was primarily due to a $10.1 million increase in payroll and personnel-related costs, $7.9 million in professional services, $2.9 million in consulting expenses and $1.2 million in computer and software related expenses. The increase in payroll and personnel-related costs was primarily due to hiring additional personnel in general and administrative functions to support our growth initiatives. The increase in professional services and consulting expenses was primarily due to an increase in spending for commercial readiness activities. The increase in computer and software related expenses is primarily due to increased IT hardware, software, services and support to meet the needs of the growing organization. Other Income (Expense), Net Interest Income Interest income for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020 were less than $0.1 million for both years. Interest Expense Interest expense was zero for the year ended December 31, 2021 compared to $2.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2020. Interest expense for the year ended December 31, 2020 was comprised of interest expense recorded as a result of the amortization of derivative discount associated with our 2020 Notes, the recognition of a contingent beneficial conversion feature associated with our 2017 Notes upon the conversion of these notes into Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock in June 2020, and immediate charge to interest expense for the unamortized derivative discount associated with our 2017 Notes upon conversion of these notes. The conversion of the notes in June 2020 resulted in our recognition of no interest expense on these notes during the year ended December 31, 2021. Change in Fair Value of Derivative Liability The change in fair value of derivative liability was zero for the year ended December 31, 2021, compared to a loss of $1.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2020. The change of $1.3 million was primarily due to the issuance of the 2020 Notes, which included embedded derivatives, and a change in the probability related to the settlement scenarios associated with our 2019 Notes and 2020 Notes including the timing of the conversion of these notes. The 2019 and 2020 notes were converted in 2020. Change in Fair Value of Convertible Notes The change in fair value of convertible notes was $5.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2021, compared to zero for the year ended December 31, 2020. The $5.2 million recorded for the year ended December 31, 2021 represented a loss related to our 2021 Notes, which were measured quarterly at fair value. The change in fair value was primarily due to interest expense for our 2021 Notes at the stated interest rate and the conversion of our 2021 Notes into shares of Series C-2 redeemable convertible preferred stock at 15% discount to the fair value of the Series C-1 redeemable convertible preferred stock issued in July 2021. Other Expense (Income), Net Other expense, net was $0.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2021, compared to other income of $0.3 million for the year ended December 31, 2020. The $0.1 million expense in 2021 was related to realized and unrealized transaction gains and losses . The $0.3 million of other income in 2020 was related to the extinguishment gain from the conversion of our 2019 Notes and 2020 Notes into 1,058,033 shares of our Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock and represented the difference between the fair value of the Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock of $18.0 million and the carrying value of the 2019 and 2020 Notes including derivative liability of $18.3 million. 119 Liquidity and Capital Resources Sources of Liquidity Since our inception, we have incurred significant operating losses and generated revenues through five grants from the Grantors. We have not yet commercialized any products. To date, we have financed our operations primarily through the sale and issuance of convertible preferred stock, convertible notes, grant agreements with the Grantors and, to a lesser extent, a government loan. As of December 31, 2021, we had cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments of $96.1 million. From inception through December 31, 2021, we have raised $234.4 million in aggregate proceeds, net of issuance costs, primarily from the issuance of convertible preferred stock, convertible notes and grant agreements. In July 2021, we issued and sold shares of Series C-1 preferred stock for an aggregate purchase price of approximately $135.0 million. The 2021 Notes automatically converted into shares of Series C-2 preferred stock pursuant to their original terms in July 2021 in connection with our sale of Series C-1 preferred stock. In January 11, 2022, we completed the IPO of our common stock pursuant to which we received aggregate net proceeds of $196.9 million after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and other offering costs. Based on our current operational plans and assumptions, we believe that our existing cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments, together with the net proceeds from our initial public offering, will be sufficient to meet our anticipated operating and capital expenditure requirements for at least twelve months after the date of the filing of this Annual Report. We expect our expenses to increase substantially in connection with our ongoing activities, particularly as we advance the preclinical activities, manufacturing and clinical trials of AMX0035 and any future product candidates, and prepare for the commercial launch of AMX0035, if approved. In addition, we expect to incur additional costs associated with operating as a public company, including significant legal, accounting, investor relations and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company. Our expenses will also increase as we: • continue our research and development efforts, including our ongoing global Phase 3 PHOENIX trial of AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS; • pursue commercialization of AMX0035 for the treatment of ALS, initially in Canada, the United States and Europe; • submit investigational new drug applications, or INDs, of AMX0035 for the treatment of Wolfram syndrome and potentially for other indications; • conduct preclinical studies and clinical trials for potential future product candidates; • seek to identify and develop, acquire or in-license additional product candidates; • experience any delays or encounter any issues with any of the above, including but not limited to failed studies, complex results, safety issues, or other regulatory challenges; • develop the necessary processes, controls and manufacturing data to obtain marketing approval for AMX0035 or any future product candidates and to support manufacturing on a commercial scale; • seek regulatory approvals for AMX0035 or any future product candidates that successfully complete clinical trials, if any; • hire and retain additional personnel, such as non-clinical, clinical, quality assurance, regulatory affairs, manufacturing, distribution, legal, compliance, finance, general and administrative, commercial and scientific personnel; • develop, maintain, expand and protect our intellectual property portfolio; and • continue to transition our organization to being a public company. We are now a publicly traded company and will incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company. In addition, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, as well as rules adopted by the SEC and the Nasdaq Global Select Market, require public companies to implement specified corporate governance practices that are currently not applicable to us as a private company. Pursuant to Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or Section 404, we will first be required to furnish a report by our management on our internal control over financial reporting for the year ending December 31, 2022. However, while we remain an emerging growth company, we will not be required to include an attestation report on internal control over financial reporting issued by our independent registered public accounting firm. 120 To achieve compliance with Section 404 within the prescribed period, we will be engaged in a process to document and evaluate our internal control over financial reporting, which is both costly and challenging. In this regard, we will need to continue to dedicate internal resources, potentially engage outside consultants and adopt a detailed work plan to assess and document the adequacy of internal control over financial reporting, continue steps to improve control processes as appropriate, validate through testing that controls are functioning as documented and implement a continuous reporting and improvement process for internal control over financial reporting. We expect these rules and regulations will increase our legal and financial compliance costs and will make some activities more time-consuming and costly. Based on our current operational plans and assumptions, we expect that our current cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments, combined with the net proceeds from our initial public offering, will be sufficient to fund operations for at least twelve months after the date of filing of this Annual Report. We have based these estimates on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could utilize our available capital resources sooner than we expect. As we progress with our development activities and the regulatory review process, we expect to incur significant commercialization expenses related to product manufacturing, pre-commercial activities and commercialization. Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with research, development and commercialization of product candidates and programs, we are unable to estimate the exact amount of our working capital requirements. Our future funding requirements will depend on and could increase significantly as a result of many factors, including: • the scope, progress, results and costs of drug discovery, laboratory testing, preclinical and clinical development for AMX0035 and any future product candidates; • the costs, timing and outcome of potential future commercialization activities, including manufacturing, marketing, sales and distribution for AMX0035 or any future product candidates for which we receive marketing approval; • the costs, timing and outcome of regulatory review of AMX0035 and any future product candidates; • our ability to establish and maintain collaborations and license agreements on favorable terms, if at all; • our ability to enroll clinical trials in a timely manner and to quickly resolve any delays or clinical holds that may be imposed on our development activities; • timing delays with respect to preclinical and clinical development of AMX0035 and any future product candidates, including as result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic or other pandemics or disruptions; • the costs of expanding our facilities to accommodate our expected growth in personnel; • the costs of preparing, filing and prosecuting patent applications, maintaining and enforcing our intellectual property rights and defending intellectual property-related claims; • the extent to which we acquire technologies or other assets; • the sales price and availability of adequate third-party coverage and reimbursement for AMX0035 and any future product candidates, if and when approved; and • the costs of operating as a public company. Until such time, if ever, that we can generate product revenue sufficient to achieve profitability, we expect to finance our cash needs through equity offerings, debt financings, government or other third-party funding, marketing and distribution arrangements and other collaborations, strategic alliances and licensing arrangements. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of common stock, convertible securities or other equity securities, current ownership interests will be diluted. If we raise additional funds through collaborations or marketing, distribution or licensing arrangements with third parties, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies, future revenue streams or product candidates or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. In addition, debt financing, if available, may result in fixed payment obligations and may involve agreements that include restrictive covenants that limit our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures, creating liens, redeeming stock or declaring dividends, that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business. If we are unable to raise additional funds when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves. 121 Cash Flows Comparison of the Years Ended December 31, 2021 and 2020 The following table summarizes our sources and uses of cash for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020: Year Ended December 31, 2021 2020 $ Change % Change (in thousands) Net cash used in operating activities $ (74,799 ) $ (36,697 ) $ (38,102 ) 104 % Net cash used in investing activities (46,406 ) (151 ) (46,255 ) 30,632 % Net cash provided by financing activities 158,506 46,823 111,683 239 % Effect of exchange rate changes on cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash 13 — 13 *NM Net increase in cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash $ 37,314 $ 9,975 $ 27,339 274 % * NM – not meaningful Operating Activities During the year ended December 31, 2021, operating activities used $74.8 million of cash, primarily resulting from our net loss of $87.9 million, offset by $5.2 million of change in fair value of convertible notes, $3.1 million of non-cash stock-based compensation expense, $0.1 million of depreciation expense, $0.1 million net amortization of premiums and discounts on investments, and $4.6 million increase in net cash used in our operating assets and liabilities. Net cash used in our operating assets and liabilities primarily consisted of a $8.4 million increase in accrued expenses and deferred rent due to increased spending for external research and development to support our growth, a $0.7 million increase in accounts payable and a $0.1 million decrease in other assets, offset by a $0.1 million increase in interest receivable from short-term investment and $4.5 million increase in prepaid expenses and other current assets due to increase in sign-on bonuses as a result of an increase in headcount and increase in other receivables related to milestones achieved under the grant agreements for which we were owed by the grantors. During the year ended December 31, 2020, operating activities used $36.7 million of cash, primarily resulting from our net loss of $42.3 million and $0.3 million of extinguishment gain from the conversion of our 2019 Notes and 2020 Notes into Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock, partially offset by $1.7 million of non-cash interest expense, $2.6 million of net cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities, $1.3 million of change in fair value of derivative liability, and $0.2 million of non-cash stock compensation expense. The increase in non-cash interest expense was primarily due to the amortization of the derivative discount associated with the 2020 Notes and the recognition of a contingent beneficial conversion feature associated with our 2017 Notes upon the conversion of these Notes into Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock. Net cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities primarily consisted of a $1.4 million increase in accounts payable, a $1.4 million increase in accrued expenses and other current liabilities and a $0.6 million increase in accrued interest on our Notes, partially offset by a $0.7 million increase in prepaid expenses and other current assets. The increases in accounts payable, accrued expenses and other current liabilities were primarily due to timing of invoicing and cash disbursement to our vendors in connection with our increased level of operating activities in 2020. The increase in prepaid expenses and other current assets was primarily due to subscription to a health data analytics software program used in the research and development of AMX0035 and future product candidates in 2020 and increase in sign-on bonus payments to our employees in our research and development department as a result of an increase in headcount. Investing Activities During the year ended December 31, 2021, net cash used in investing activities was $46.4 million, resulting from $0.4 million of purchases of property and equipment and $49.1 million of purchases of short-term investments, offset by $3.0 million investment matured. 122 During the year ended December 31, 2020, net cash used in investing activities was $0.2 million, driven by purchases of property and equipment. Financing Activities During the year ended December 31, 2021, net cash provided by financing activities was $158.5 million. This amount consisted of $134.8 million of net proceeds from the sale of our Series C-1 redeemable convertible preferred stock, $14.3 million of net proceeds from the issuance of convertible notes to related parties, $11.9 million of net proceeds from the issuance of the convertible notes and $0.3 million of proceeds from exercises of stock options, offset by a $2.5 million payment of deferred offering costs, $0.3 million repayment of PPP loan, and less than $0.1 million of issuance costs related to the conversion of the convertible notes, which was related to the 2021 Notes. During the year ended December 31, 2020, net cash provided by financing was $46.8 million, consisting of $30.0 million of net proceeds from the sale of Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock, $10.6 million of net proceeds from the issuance of the 2020 Notes, net of issuance costs, $1.2 million of proceeds received in advance of the issuance of the 2021 Notes, $4.8 million of net proceeds from the issuance of the 2020 Notes to related parties, and $0.3 million of net proceeds received from the PPP Loan. In April 2020, we received the PPP Loan from First Republic Bank. Under the terms of the CARES Act and the PPP Loan, all or portion of the principal amount of the PPP Loan is subject to forgiveness so long as, over the 24-week period following our receipt of the proceeds of the PPP Loan, we use those proceeds for payroll costs, rent, utility costs or the maintenance of employee and compensation levels. The PPP Loan was forgiven in March 2021 and notwithstanding the forgiveness of the PPP Loan, we repaid it in full on October 7, 2021. Critical Accounting Policies and Significant Judgments and Estimates Our consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with U.S. GAAP. The preparation of our consolidated financial statements and related disclosures requires us to make estimates and judgments that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, costs and expenses, and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities in our consolidated financial statements. We base our estimates on historical experience, known trends and events and various other factors that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. Our actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions. While our significant accounting policies are described in more detail in Note 2 to our consolidated financial statements appearing at the end of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, we believe that the following accounting policies are those most critical to the judgments and estimates used in the preparation of our consolidated financial statements. Accrued Research and Development Expenses As part of the process of preparing our consolidated financial statements, we are required to estimate our accrued research and development expenses. This process involves reviewing open contracts and purchase orders, communicating with our personnel to identify services that have been performed on our behalf and estimating the level of service performed and the associated cost incurred for the service when we have not yet been invoiced or otherwise notified of actual costs. The majority of our service providers invoice us in arrears for services performed, on a pre-determined schedule or when contractual milestones are met; however, some require advance payments. We make estimates of our accrued expenses as of each balance sheet date in the consolidated financial statements based on facts and circumstances known to us at that time. We periodically confirm the accuracy of these estimates with the service providers and make adjustments if necessary. The estimate of accrued research and development expense is dependent, in part, upon the receipt of timely and accurate reporting from CROs, CMOs and other third-party service providers. Examples of estimated accrued research and development expenses include fees paid to: • vendors in connection with preclinical development activities; 123 • CROs and investigative sites in connection with preclinical studies and clinical trials; and • CMOs in connection with drug substance and drug product formulation of preclinical study and clinical trial materials. We base our expenses related to preclinical studies and clinical trials on our estimates of the services received and efforts expended pursuant to quotes and contracts with multiple CMOs and CROs that conduct and manage preclinical studies and clinical trials on our behalf. The financial terms of these agreements are subject to negotiation, vary from contract to contract and may result in uneven payment flows. There may be instances in which payments made to our vendors will exceed the level of services provided and result in a prepayment of the expense. In accruing service fees, we estimate the time period over which services will be performed and the level of effort to be expended in each period. If the actual timing of the performance of services or the level of effort varies from the estimate, we adjust the accrual or the amount of prepaid expenses accordingly. Although we do not expect our estimates to be materially different from amounts actually incurred, our understanding of the status and timing of services performed relative to the actual status and timing of services performed may vary and may result in reporting amounts that are too high or too low in any particular period. To date, there have not been any material adjustments to our prior estimates of accrued research and development expenses. Valuation of Derivative Liability In connection with our issuance of the 2017 Notes, 2018 Notes, 2019 Notes, and 2020 Notes, we recognized derivative liabilities associated with the redemption features as they met the requirements for separate accounting as derivatives. The derivative instruments were recorded at fair value at inception and were subject to re-measurement to fair value the end of each reporting period and immediately prior to conversion, with any changes in fair value recognized in the statements of operations. The primary inputs for the valuation approach included the probability of achieving various settlement scenarios that provide the lenders the rights or the obligations to receive cash at maturity or a variable number of shares upon the completion of qualified financing, and stock or asset sale. The fair value of the derivative instruments associated with each note was estimated using a two-step approach to valuation, employing a probability-weighted scenario valuation method and then comparing the instrument’s value with-and-without the derivative features in order to estimate their combined fair value, using unobservable inputs. In order to estimate the fair value of the 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020 Notes, we estimated the future payoff in each scenario, discounted them to a present value and then probability weighted them based upon our best estimate of likelihood of each event occurring. In June 2020, in connection with our issuance of the Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock, our 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020 Notes converted into shares of Series B redeemable convertible preferred stock. Fair Value Option As permitted under ASC Topic 825, Financial Instruments (ASC 825), we elected the fair value option to account for our 2021 Notes, which converted into Series C-2 redeemable convertible preferred stock in July 2021. In accordance with ASC 825, we recorded the 2021 Notes at fair value with changes in fair value recorded in the consolidated statement of operations for the year ended December 31, 2021. As a result of applying the fair value option, direct costs and fees related to the 2021 Notes were expensed as incurred and were not deferred. We concluded it was appropriate to apply the fair value option to the 2021 Notes because they are liabilities that are not, in whole or in part, classified as a component of the stockholders’ deficit. In addition, the 2021 Notes met other applicable criteria for electing fair value option under ASC 825. In determining the fair value of the 2021 Notes under the fair value option, we used a scenario-based analysis to incorporate estimates and assumptions concerning our prospects and market indications into a model to estimate the value of the 2021 Notes. The most significant estimates and assumptions used as inputs are those concerning timing, probability of possible scenarios for conversion or settlement of the 2021 Notes and discount rates. The fair value of the 2021 Notes upon settlement in July 2021 was determined based on the fair value of the Series C-1 redeemable convertible preferred stock issued. This method was selected as we concluded that the contemporaneous financing transaction was an arm’s length transaction. Stock-Based Compensation We account for stock-based compensation under the provisions of ASC 718-10, Compensation—Stock Compensation, which requires all share-based payments to employees, non-employees and directors, including grants of 124 stock options and restricted stock, to be recognized in the consolidated statements of operations based on their fair values on the date of grant over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period of the respective award. Forfeitures are accounted for as they occur. Generally, we issue stock option awards with only service-based vesting conditions and record the expense for these awards using the straight-line method. We classify stock-based compensation expense in the same manner in which the awards recipient’s payroll or service provider’s costs are classified. The fair value of each option grant is estimated on the date of grant using the Black-Scholes option pricing model, which requires inputs based on certain subjective assumptions, including the expected stock price volatility, the expected term of the award, the risk-free interest rate, and expected dividends. We estimate the expected stock price volatility based on the historical volatility of publicly traded peer companies. The expected term of our stock options has been determined utilizing the “simplified” method for awards that qualify as “plain vanilla” options. The risk-free interest rate is determined by reference to the U.S. Treasury yield curve in effect at the time of grant of the award for time periods approximately equal to the expected term of the award. There is no expected dividend yield since we have never paid cash dividends on common stock and do not expect to pay any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Common Stock Valuations As there was no public market for our common stock until the closing of our initial public offering, the estimated fair value of common stock was determined by our Board of Directors as of the date of each option grant, with input from management, considering third-party valuations of our common stock as well as our Board of Directors’ assessment of additional objective and subjective factors that it believed were relevant and which may have changed from the date of the most recent third-party valuation through the date of the grant. Historically, these independent third-party valuations of our equity instruments were performed contemporaneously with identified value inflection points. These third-party valuations were performed in accordance with the guidance outlined in the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants’ Accounting and Valuation Guide, Valuation of Privately Held Company Equity Securities Issued as Compensation or the Practice Aid . The Practice Aid identifies various available methods for allocating the enterprise value across classes of series of capital stock in determining the fair value of our common stock at each valuation date. The assumptions used to determine the estimated fair value of our common stock were based on numerous objective and subjective factors, combined with management judgment, including: • external market conditions affecting the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry and trends within the industry; • our stage of development and business strategy; • the rights, preferences, and privileges of our redeemable convertible preferred stock relative to those of our common stock; • the prices at which we sold shares of our redeemable convertible preferred stock; • our financial condition and operating results, including our levels of available capital resources; • the progress of our research and development efforts; • equity market conditions affecting comparable public companies; • economic outlook including economic growth, inflation and unemployment, interest rate environment, and global economic trends; and • the lack of marketability of our common stock In accordance with the Practice Aid, we determined the hybrid method of the option pricing method, or OPM, and the Probability-Weighted Expected Return Method, or PWERM, was the most appropriate method for determining the fair value of our common stock based on our stage of development and other relevant factors. The OPM uses option theory to value the various classes of a company’s securities in light of their respective claims to the enterprise value. Total shareholders’ equity value is allocated to the various share classes based upon their respective claims on a series of call options with strike prices at various value levels depending upon the rights and preferences of each class. A Black-Scholes closed form option pricing model is employed in this analysis, with an option term assumption that is consistent with the expected time to a liquidity event and a volatility assumption based on the estimated stock price volatility of a peer group of comparable public companies over a similar term. 125 The PWERM values each class of equity based on an analysis of the range of potential future enterprise values of the company and the manner in which those values would accrue to the owners of the different classes of equity. This method involves estimating the overall value of the subject company under various liquidity event scenarios and allocating the value to the various share classes based on their respective claim on the proceeds as of the date of each event. These different scenarios typically include an initial public offering, an acquisition, or a liquidation of the business, each resulting in a different value. For each scenario, the future value of each share class is calculated and discounted to a present value. The results of each scenario are then probability weighted in order to arrive at an estimate of fair value for each share class as of a current date. The hybrid method is a hybrid between the PWERM and OPM, estimating the probability-weighted value across multiple scenarios, but using the OPM to estimate the allocation of value within one or more of the scenarios. In our hybrid method, two types of future event scenarios were considered: an initial public offering, or IPO, and a non-IPO scenario accounting for all other potential future exits. Under both scenarios, the enterprise value was determined at each valuation date using a combination of the cost approach; the income approach, specifically a discounted cash flow analysis; and the market approach, specifically a backsolve to the last round of financing. The relative probabilities between the future exit scenarios were determined by our board of directors based on an analysis of performance and market conditions at the time, including then current IPO valuations of similarly situated companies and expectations as to the timing and likely prospects of future event scenarios. The assumptions underlying these valuations represented management’s best estimates, which involved inherent uncertainties and the application of management’s judgment. As a result, if we had used significantly different assumptions or estimates, the fair value of our common stock and our stock-based compensation expense could have been materially different. Upon the closing of our initial public offering, our board of directors will determine the fair market value of our common stock based on its closing price as reported on the date of grant on the primary stock exchange on which our common stock is traded. Emerging Growth Company and Smaller Reporting Company Status The Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012, or the JOBS Act, permits an “emerging growth company” such as us to take advantage of an extended transition period to comply with new or revised accounting standards applicable to public companies until those standards would otherwise apply to private companies. We have elected to use this extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards that have different effective dates for public and private companies until the earlier of the date we (i) are no longer an emerging growth company or (ii) affirmatively and irrevocably opt out of the extended transition period provided in the JOBS Act. As a result, we will not be subject to the same new or revised accounting standards as other public companies that are not emerging growth companies, and our consolidated financial statements may not be comparable to other public companies that comply with new or revised accounting pronouncements as of public company effective dates. We may choose to early adopt any new or revised accounting standards whenever such early adoption is permitted for private companies. We will cease to be an emerging growth company on the date that is the earliest of (i) the last day of the fiscal year in which we have total annual gross revenues of $1.07 billion or more, (ii) the last day of our fiscal year following the fifth anniversary of the date of the closing of our initial public offering, (iii) the date on which we have issued more than $1.0 billion in nonconvertible debt during the previous three years or (iv) the date on which we are deemed to be a large, accelerated filer under the rules of the Securities and Exchange Commission. We are also a “smaller reporting company”, meaning that the market value of our stock held by non-affiliates plus the aggregate amount of gross proceeds to us as a result of our initial public offering is less than $700 million and our annual revenue was less than $100 million during the most recently completed fiscal year. We may continue to be a smaller reporting company after our initial public offering if either (i) the market value of our stock held by non-affiliates is less than $250 million or (ii) our annual revenue was less than $100 million during the most recently completed fiscal year and the market value of our stock held by non-affiliates is less than $700 million. If we are a smaller reporting company at the time we cease to be an emerging growth company, we may continue to rely on exemptions from certain disclosure requirements that are available to smaller reporting companies. Specifically, as a smaller reporting company we may choose to present only the two most recent fiscal years of audited financial statements in our Annual Report on Form 10-K and, similar to emerging growth companies, smaller reporting companies have reduced disclosure obligations regarding executive compensation. 126 Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements A description of recently issued accounting pronouncements that may potentially impact our financial position and results of operations is disclosed in Note 2 to our consolidated financial statements. 127 Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk. We are a smaller reporting company as defined by Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act and are not required to provide the information required under this item. Item 8 . Financial Statements and Supplementary Data. Our consolidated financial statements, together with the reports of our independent registered public accounting firms, appear beginning on page F-1 of this Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2021. Item 9 . Changes in and Disagreements with Accountants on Accounting and Financial Disclosure. None.